Biotechnology
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- Arthritis See OSTEOARTHRITIS , AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE . Ascites
- Ascorbic Acid
- Aspergillus flavus
- Association of Biotechnology Companies (ABC)
- ATCC See AMERICAN TYPE CULTURE COLLECTION ( ATCC ), TYPE SPECIMEN , ACCESSION . Atherosclerosis
- ATP Synthetase See ATP SYNTHASE . ATPase
- Atrial Natriuretic Factor
- Attenuation (of RNA)
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Apolipoprotein B See LOW - DENSITY LIPOPRO- TEINS ( LDLP ), APOLIPOPROTEINS , VERY LOW - DEN- SITY LIPOPROTEINS ( VLDL ). Apolipoproteins The protein portion of lipo- proteins (i.e., after the lipid portion is removed from those molecules). See also LOW - DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS ( LDLP ), PROTEIN , LIP- IDS , VERY LOW - DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS ( VLDL ). Apomixis A method of reproduction used by scientists to propagate (hybrid) plants without having to utilize sexual fertilization. By combining apomixis with tissue culture technology, Cai Detian, Ma Piugfu, and Yao Jialin were able to propagate rice varieties in 1994. In 1998, Dimitri Petrov, Phillip Sims, and Chester Deald were able to cause apomixis in corn (maize). By “fixing” hybrid dominance, the need for (sexual) breeding is eliminated and the hybrid vigor is passed down via the seed from generation to gen- eration. See also ASEXUAL , GERM CELL , HYBRID VIGOR , TISSUE CULTURE , HYBRIDIZATION ( PLANT GENETICS ), CORN , F 1 HYBRIDS . Apoptosis Also called “programmed cell death,” it is a series of programmed steps that cause a cell to die by “self digestion” without rupturing and releasing intracellular contents (e.g., nucleus, chromosomes, refrac- tile bodies, etc.) into the local (surrounding tissue) environment. Manifestations of cell apoptosis include shrinking of the cell’s cytoplasm and chromatin condensation. If the normal cell apoptosis is prevented (e.g., by an enzyme that is present due to disease) in the body, cells can grow uncontrollably (i.e., causing cancer). For example, people with chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML, also known as chronic myeloid leukemia) typically have 10–25 times as many white blood cells as normal. See also CELL , CD 95 PROTEIN , SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION , SIGNALING , REFRACTILE BODIES ( RB ), NUCLEUS , CHROMO- SOMES , CHROMATIN , CYTOPLASM , FUSARIUM , p53 GENE , TUBULIN , CANCER , SELECTIVE APOPTOTIC ANTI - NEOPLASTIC DRUG ( SAAND ), HYPERSENSI- TIVE RESPONSE , SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION , SIGNAL TRANSDUCERS AND ACTIVATORS OF TRANSCRIP- TION ( STAT s ), GENE EXPRESSION CASCADE , ENZYME , WHITE BLOOD CELLS , PHILADELPHIA CHROMOSOME , GLEEVEC ™ . Approvable Letter (from the FDA) One of the final steps in the U.S. Food and Drug Admin- istration’s (FDA) review process for new pharmaceuticals. The letter precedes final FDA clearance for marketing of the new compound. See also FOOD AND DRUG ADMIN- ISTRATION ( FDA ), IND , IND EXEMPTION . Aptamers Oligonucleotide molecules that bind (stick to) other, specific molecules (e.g., proteins). Aptamer is from the Latin aptus, to fit. In 1992, Louis Bock and John Toole isolated aptamers that bind and inhibit the blood-coagulation enzyme thrombin. Since thrombin is crucial to the formation of blood © 2002 by CRC Press LLC A clots (coagulation), such aptamers may someday be useful for anticoagulant therapy (e.g., to prevent blood clots following sur- gery or heart attacks). See also ENZYME , OLIGONUCLEOTIDE , PROTEIN , INHIBITION , THROM- BIN , THROMBUS , THROMBOSIS . Arabidopsis thaliana A small weed plant (Cruciferae) possessing 70,000 kilobase pairs in its genome, with very little repetitive DNA. This makes it an ideal model for studying plant genetics. At least two genetic maps have been created for Arabidopsis thaliana (one using yeast artificial chromo- somes). Because of this, a large base of knowledge about it has been accumulated by the scientific community. A. thaliana was first genetically engineered in 1986. In 1994, researchers succeeded in transferring genes for polyhydroxylbutylate (“biodegradable plastic”) production into A. thaliana. Because production of poly- hydroxylbutylate (PHB) requires simulta- neous expression of three genes (the PHB production process is “polygenic”) — yet researchers have only been able to insert a maximum of two genes — they have to insert two genes into one plant and one gene into a second plant, then finally get the (total) three genes into (offspring) plants via tradi- tional breeding. During 2001, Eduardo Blumwald and Hong-Xia Zhang inserted a salt-tolerance gene from A. thaliana into a tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum), and thereby made that tomato plant resistant to salt in concentrations up to 200 mM (far higher than it could previously survive). See also BRASSICA , GENE , EXPRESS , BASE PAIR ( bp ), KILOBASE PAIRS ( K bp ), GENOME , GENETIC CODE , GENETIC MAP , GENETICS , TRAIT , POLYGENIC , DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ), POLYHYDROXYL- BUTYLATE ( PHB ), YEAST ARTIFICIAL CHROMO- SOMES ( YAC ), MODEL ORGANISM , TOMATO , SALT TOLERANCE . Arachidonic Acid (AA) One of the omega-6 (n-6) highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), AA is synthesized (manufactured) by the human body from linoleic acid (e.g., obtained by consuming soybean oil). AA is present in human breast milk, and research indicates that it plays an important role in the mental development of infants. Arachidonic acid is a crucial precursor for prostaglandins and other eicosanoids. The COX-1 enzyme converts arachidonic acid to constitutive prostaglandins and the COX-2 enzyme con- verts arachidonic acid to inducible prosta- glandins. See also C Y C L O O X Y G E N A S E , POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS ( PUFA ), N - 6 FATTY ACIDS , FATTY ACIDS , UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS , LINOLEIC ACID , SOYBEAN OIL , CONSTITUTIVE ENZYMES , INDUCIBLE ENZYMES , LEUKOTRIENES , ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS , EICOSANOIDS . Archaea Single-celled life forms that can live at extreme ocean depths (high pressure) and in the absence of oxygen. Enzymes robust (sturdy) enough for industrial process utili- zation have been isolated by scientists from some strains of Archaea. Other Archaea strains are sometimes present in the rumen (“first stomach”) of cattle and sheep. Those Archaea produce methane gas by breaking down some of the feed consumed by the cat- tle and sheep. See also ENZYME , EXTREM- OZYMES , CELL , ANAEROBE , ANAEROBIC , STRAIN . Arginine (arg) An amino acid, commonly abbreviated arg. In dry, bulk form arginine is colorless, crystalline, and water soluble. It is an essential amino acid of the α-ketoglutaric acid family. See also AMINO ACID , ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS , NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE . ARM Acronym for antibiotic resistance marker. See also MARKER ( GENETIC MARKER ). ARMD Acronym for Age-Related Macular Degeneration. See also LUTEIN . ARMG Acronym for Antibiotic Resistance Marker Gene. See also ANTIBIOTIC , ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE , GENE , MARKER ( GENETIC MARKER ), RECOMBINASE . Armyworm Caterpillars (pupae) of the Lepi- dopteran insect Pseudaletia unipuncta fam- ily; most of which are harmful to crops (e.g., wheat, corn/maize, etc.) grown by humans. Armyworms are susceptible to some of the “cry” proteins (e.g., they are killed if they eat plants genetically engineered to contain Cry1A(b), Cry9C, or Cry1F proteins). Armyworms are preyed upon by some spe- cies of ground beetles, sphecid wasps, toads, birds, etc. See also PROTEIN , VOLICITIN , CRY PROTEINS , CRY 1 A ( b ) PROTEIN , CRY 1 F PROTEIN , CRY 9 C PROTEIN , CORN , WHEAT . © 2002 by CRC Press LLC A AroA Refers to the transgene (cassette) which was initially isolated/extracted from the genome of the Agrobacterium bacteria spe- cies (strain CP4) and inserted via genetic engineering techniques into a crop plant (e.g., soybean, Glycine max L.) in order to make that (soybean) plant tolerant to glypho- sate-based herbicides (and also sulfosate- based herbicides). See also GENE , TRANSGENE , CASSETTE , GENOME , AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFA- CIENS , EPSP SYNTHASE , m EPSPS , CP 4 EPSPS , SOY- BEAN , HERBICIDE - TOLERANT CROP , GENETIC ENGINEERING , SOYBEAN PLANT , GLYPHOSATE , SULFOSATE . ARS See ARS ELEMENT . ARS Element A sequence of DNA that will support autonomous replication (sequence, ARS). See also DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID ( DNA ), SEQUENCE ( OF A DNA MOLECULE ). Arteriosclerosis A group of diseases (includ- ing atherosclerosis) which is characterized by a decrease in elasticity (stretchiness) and a thickening of the walls of the body’s arter- ies. See also ATHEROSCLEROSIS , CORONARY HEART DISEASE ( CHD ), PLAQUE . Arthritis See OSTEOARTHRITIS , AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE . Ascites Liquid accumulations in the peritoneal cavity. Used as an input in one of the meth- ods for producing monoclonal antibodies. See also MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES ( MA b ), PERI- TONEAL CAVITY / MEMBRANE , ANTIBODY . Ascorbic Acid A water-soluble vitamin and antioxidant. See also VITAMIN , ANTIOXIDANTS . -ase The three-letter suffix that is added to a (root) word to denote an enzyme. For exam- ple, the stomachs of reindeer contain liche- nase, an enzyme that enables reindeer to digest lichen that the reindeer consume as a source of winter food. See also ENZYME , PROTEASE , OXYGENASE , HUMAN PROTEIN KINASE C , HUMAN SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE ( h SOD ), POLYMERASE , ATP ase , ATP SYNTHASE , REGULATORY ENZYME . Asexual Denotes fertilization and/or reproduc- tion by in vitro means. Without sex. See also IN VITRO , APOMIXIS , GERM CELL . Asian Corn Borer Also known by its Latin name, Ostrinia furnacalis is an insect (orig- inally from Asia) whose larvae (caterpillars) eat and bore into the corn/maize (Zea Mays L.) plant. In doing so, they can act as vectors (carriers) of the fungi known as Aspergillus flavus (a source of aflatoxin), Fusarium moniliforme (a source of fumoni- sin), or Aspergillus parasiticus (a source of aflatoxin). See also EUROPEAN CORN BORER ( ECB ), CORN , FUNGUS , AFLATOXIN , FUSARIUM , FUSARIUM MONILIFORME . Asparagine (asp) An amino acid, commonly abbreviated asp. In dry, bulk form asparagine appears as a white, crystalline solid. It is found in high amounts in many plants. See also AMINO ACID . Aspartic Acid A dicarboxylic amino acid found in plants and animals, especially in molasses from young sugarcane and sugar beets. See also AMINO ACID . Aspergillus flavus See AFLATOXIN , PEROXIDASE , BETA CAROTENE . Assay A test (specific technique) that measures a response to a test substance or the efficacy (effectiveness) of the test substance. See also IMMUNOASSAY , BIOASSAY , LUMINESCENT ASSAY , HYBRIDIZATION SURFACES . Assimilation The formation of self cellular material from small molecules derived from food. See also INSULIN - LIKE GROWTH FACTOR- 1 ( IGF - 1 ), RIBOSOMES , MESSENGER RNA ( m RNA ). Association of Biotechnology Companies (ABC) An American trade association of companies involved in biotechnology and services to biotechnology companies (e.g., accounting, law, etc.). Formed in 1984, the ABC tended to consist of the smaller firms involved in biotechnology (and service firms that worked for all biotechnology compa- nies). In 1993, the ABC was merged with the Industrial Biotechnology Association (IBA) to form the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO). See also INDUSTRIAL BIO- TECHNOLOGY ASSOCIATION ( IBA ), BIOTECH- N O L O G Y I N D U S T R Y O R G A N I Z A T I O N ( B I O ), BIOTECHNOLOGY . Astaxanthin A carotenoid pigment responsi- ble for the characteristic pink coloring of salmon, trout, and shrimp. It is produced by the microorganisms in the natural (wild) diets of those aquatic animals. Research has shown that astaxanthin (an antioxidant) helps boost the immune systems of humans that consume it. Research has also shown that astaxanthin helps to reduce oral cancer © 2002 by CRC Press LLC A in rats and inhibit breast cancer in mice. See also CAROTENOIDS , ANTIOXIDANTS , OXIDATIVE STRESS . AT-III A human blood factor that promotes clotting. A deficiency of AT-III can be inher- ited or can result from certain surgical pro- cedures, certain illnesses, and sometimes use of certain oral contraceptives. See also FACTOR VIII . ATCC See AMERICAN TYPE CULTURE COLLECTION ( ATCC ), TYPE SPECIMEN , ACCESSION . Atherosclerosis A form of arteriosclerosis characterized by deposition and buildup of fatty deposits (plaque) on the internal walls of the body’s arteries, in addition to the decreased elasticity of artery walls that char- acterizes all forms of arteriosclerosis. When a piece of plaque breaks off, a blood clot generally forms, and that clot often blocks blood flow through the artery, causing a heart attack or stroke. See also ARTERIOSCLEROSIS , CORONARY HEART DISEASE ( CHD ), CHOLESTEROL , THROMBOSIS , THROMBUS , FLAVONOIDS , OXIDA- TIVE STRESS , ANTIOXIDANTS , PLAQUE . Atomic Weight The total mass of an atom equal to the sum of the isotope’s number of protons and neutrons (in the atom’s nucleus). The atomic weights of the earth’s elements are based on the assignment of exactly 12.000 as the atomic weight of the carbon-12 isotope (variation of atom). The atomic (weight) the- ory was established as a framework in 1869 by Meyer and Mendeléev, but standard pre- cise values were not adopted internationally until an international commission on atomic weights was formed in 1899 in response to an initiative by the German Chemical Soci- ety. An element’s atomic weight does not come out to a whole number (with the excep- tion of carbon), because of the existence of isotopes which differ slightly with respect to the number of neutrons each contains. See also MOLECULAR WEIGHT , ISOTOPE . ATP See ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE ( ATP ). ATP Synthase An enzyme complex that forms ATP from ADP and phosphate during oxida- tive phosphorylation in the inner mitochon- drial membrane (in animals), in chloroplasts (in plants), and in cell membranes (in bacteria). This is an energy-producing reac- tion in that ATP is a high-energy compound used by cells to maintain their living condi- tion. ATP synthase is also present on the surface of endothelial cells (lining of blood vessels) where it helps to build new blood vessels (e.g., to replace tissue damaged by injury or disease). Under certain circum- stances, this also creates new blood vessels that provide blood supply to tumors. When separated from the cell’s membrane, ATP synthase hydrolyzes (breaks down) ATP via a chemical process in which one subunit (designated g) of ATP synthase rotates within the other (hollow) part of ATP syn- thase. See also ENZYME , CHLOROPLASTS , ADE- NOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE ( ATP ), HYDROLYSIS , ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE ( ADP ), MITOCHONDRIA , TUMOR , ENDOTHELIAL CELLS , ANGIOSTATIN . ATP Synthetase See ATP SYNTHASE . ATPase Adenosine triphosphatase, an enzyme that hydrolyzes (clips the bond between two phosphates in) ATP to yield ADP, phosphate, and energy. The reaction is usually coupled to an energy-requiring process. ATP is hydrolyzed in the act of shivering and the energy produced is converted into heat to increase body temperature. This type of heat production involves what is known as a futile cycle because the energy is converted to (and wasted as) heat rather than used in motion, etc. See also ATP SYNTHASE , ENZYME , ADENOS- INE TRIPHOSPHATE ( ATP ), ADENOSINE DIPHOS- PHATE ( ADP ), FUTILE CYCLE , HYDROLYSIS , HYDROLYZE . Atrial Natriuretic Factor An atrial peptide hormone that may regulate blood pressure and electrolyte balance within the body. An example is a peptide hormone. See also HOR- MONE , ATRIAL PEPTIDES , PEPTIDE . Atrial Peptides Endocrine components (pro- teins) that act to regulate blood pressure, as well as water and electrolyte homeostasis within the body. Atrial peptides are made by the heart in response to elevated blood pres- sure levels, and they stimulate the kidneys to excrete water and sodium into the urine, thus lowering blood pressure. They also slow the heartbeat. An example is a peptide hor- mone. See also ENDOCRINE HORMONES , HOMEO- STASIS , ELECTROLYTE . Attenuated (pathogens) Inactivated, rendered harmless (e.g., killed viruses used to make © 2002 by CRC Press LLC A a vaccine). Some of the ways in which viruses and other pathogens may be attenuated are by heat, chemical, or radiation treatment. See also PATHOGEN . Attenuation (of RNA) Premature termination of an elongating RNA chain. See also RIBO- NUCLEIC ACID ( RNA ). Aureofacin An antifungal antibiotic produced by a strain of Streptomyces aureofaciens. At least one company has incorporated the gene for this antibiotic (which acts against wheat take-all disease) into a Pseudomonas fluore- scens used to confer resistance to wheat take- all disease by allowing the bacteria to colo- nize the wheat’s roots. In this way the plant obtains the benefits of the antibiotic because the bacteria become part of the plant. See also PSEUDOMONAS FLUORESCENS , ENDOPHYTE , ANTIBIOTIC , BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS ( B . t .). Autogenous Control The action of a gene product (a molecule) that either inhibits (negative autogenous control) or activates (positive autogenous control) expression of the gene that codes for it (Greek auto, self). The presence of the product either causes or stops its own production. See also GENE , EXPRESS . Autoimmune Disease A disease in which the body produces an immunogenic (immune system) response to some constituent of its own tissue. In other words, the immune sys- tem loses its ability to recognize some tissue or system within the body as “self” and targets and attacks it as if it were foreign. Autoim- mune diseases can be classified into those in which one organ is predominantly affected (e.g., hemolytic anemia and chronic thyroidi- tis), and those in which the autoimmune dis- ease process is diffused through many tissues (e.g., multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and rheumatoid arthritis). For example, multiple sclerosis is thought to be caused by T cells attacking acetylcho- line receptors in the sheaths (myelin) that surround the nerve fibers of the brain and spinal cord. This eventually results in loss of coordination, weakness, and blurred vision. Arthritis is caused by immune system cells attacking joint tissues. Certain bacterial infections (e.g., Lyme disease, Salmonella, etc.) are followed by arthritis in approximately 10% of cases. The antigen (on surface of those bacteria) targeted by the human immune system is similar (in its molecular shape) to a protein located on the surface of cells in human joint tissue(s). See also THY- MUS , SUPERANTIGENS , T CELLS , TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ( TNF ), MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS , MYOELEC- TRIC SIGNALS , ACETYLCHOLINE , LUPUS , INSULIN - DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITIS ( IDDM ), DIABETES , ANTIGEN , BACTERIA , SALMONELLA TYPHIMURIUM , PROTEIN , CELL . Download 4.84 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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