Biotechnology

B
Biolistic
®
 Gene Gun The word “biolistic”
was coined from the words “biological” and
“ballistic” (pertaining to a projectile fired
from a gun). Used to shoot pellets that are
coated with genes (for desired traits) into
plant seeds or plant tissues, in order to get
those plants to then express the new genes.
The gun uses an actual explosive (.22 caliber
blank) to propel the material. Compressed
air or steam may also be used as the propel-
lant. The Biolistic
®
 Gene Gun was invented
in 1983–1984 at Cornell University by John
Sanford, Edward Wolf, and Nelson Allen.
The gun and its registered trademark are now
owned by E. I. du Pont de Nemours and
Company. See also 
WHISKERS
™
, “
SHOTGUN
”
METHOD
,
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
GENE
,
BIOSEEDS
,
MICROPARTICLES
.
Biological Activity The effect (change in met-
abolic activity upon living cells) caused by
specific compounds or agents. For example,
the drug aspirin causes the blood to thin, i.e.,
to clot less easily. See also 
BIOASSAY
,
PHAR-
MACOPHORE
,
RETINOIDS
.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) The oxy-
gen used in meeting the metabolic needs of
aerobic organisms in water containing
organic compounds. Numerically, it is
expressed in terms of the oxygen consumed
in water at a temperature of 68°F (20°C)
during a 5-day period. The BOD is used as
an indication of the degree of water pollu-
tion. See also 
METABOLISM
.
Biological Vectors See
VECTORS
.
Biology From the two Greek words bios (life)
and logos (word), it is the field of science
encompassing the study of life. See also
GENETICS
,
CLADISTICS
,
ORGANISM
,
SPECIES
.
Bioluminescence The enzyme-catalyzed pro-
duction of light by living organisms, typi-
cally during mating or hunting. This word
literally means living light. First identi-
fied/analyzed in 1947 by William McElroy,
bioluminescence results when the enzyme
luciferase comes into contact with adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)/luciferin, inside the pho-
tophores (organs which emit the light) of the
organism. Such production of light by living
organisms is exemplified by fireflies, South
America’s railroad worm, and by many deep
ocean marine organisms. Bioluminescence
has been utilized by man as a genetic marker
(e.g., to cause a genetically engineered plant
to glow as evidence that a gene was success-
fully transferred into that plant). Another use
of bioluminescence by man is for the rapid
detection of foodborne pathogenic bacteria
(e.g., in a food processing factory). One
rapid-test for bacteria uses two chemical
reagents that first break down bacteria cell
membranes, then cause the ATP from those
broken cells to luminesce. Another rapid-test
uses electrophoresis to first separate the
sequences of bacteria’s DNA (following its
extraction from cell and enzymatic fragmen-
tation), then cause those separated sequences
to luminesce. A camera is used to record the
sequence-pattern light emission and compare
that pattern to patterns of pathogenic bacteria
previously stored in a database. See also
ENZYME
,
MARKER
 (
GENETIC MARKER
),
BACTERIA
,
TOXIN
,
PATHOGENIC
,
ESCHERICHIA COLIFORM
0157
:
H
7
  (
E
.
COLI
0157
:
H
7
),
CELL
,
LUMINESCENT
ASSAY
,
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
 (
ATP
),
GENETIC
ENGINEERING
,
ELECTROPHORESIS
,
POLYACRYLA-
MIDE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
  (
PAGE
),
SEQUENCE
(
OF A DNA MOLECULE
),
PHOTORHABDUS LUMINE-
SCENS RESTRICTION ENDONUCLEASES
,
NITRIC
OXIDE
.
Biomass All organic matter grown by the pho-
tosynthetic conversion of solar energy (e.g.,
plants) and organic matter from animals. See
also
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
,
LOW
-
TILLAGE CROP PRO-
DUCTION
,
NO
-
TILLAGE CROP PRODUCTION
.
BioMEMS Refers to MEMS designed to work
within biological systems/organisms. Exam-
ples include microfluidic cell sorters, or a
biochip possessing diverging nanometer-
scale etched channels and a fluorescence
detector. Via an electrical field that would
drive electrophoretic separation of DNA
(fragments), samples of DNA could be sep-
arated/sorted/identified by fluorescence. See
also
MEMS
  (
NANOTECHNOLOGY
),
ORGANISM
,
ELECTROPHORESIS
,
MICROFLUIDICS
,
CELL SORTING
,
NANOMETERS
  (
nm
),
FLUORESCENCE
,
BIOCHIP
,
NANOTECHNOLOGY
.
Biomimetic Materials Synthetic (man-made)
molecules or systems that are analogues of
natural (made by living organisms) materials.
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

B
For instance, molecules have been synthe-
sized by man that act chemically like natural
proteins, but are not as easily degraded by
the digestive system (as are those natural
protein molecules). Other systems, such as
reverse micelles and/or liposomes, exhibit
certain properties that mimic certain aspects
of living systems. See also 
PROTEIN
,
DIGESTION
(
WITHIN ORGANISMS
),
REVERSE MICELLE
  (
RM
),
LIPOSOMES
,
ANALOGUE
,
BIONICS
,
BIOPOLYMER
.
Biomolecular Electronics See
BIOELECTRONICS
.
Biomotors Refers to biologically based tech-
nologies/techniques used to “power”
nanometer-size machines (e.g., “nanobots”)
in one way or another. For example, during
2000 Bernard Yurke and colleagues created
a molecular-machine “tweezers” (grasper)
consisting of three separate strands of DNA
(two of them were hybridized separately to
small complementary sequences near the
two ends of the first DNA strand). The
“tweezers” can then be closed (or opened)
by sequentially adding other DNA strands
(to the three) which can hybridize to small
complementary sequences on second and
third strands, or hybridize to the fourth
strand, causing it to unhybridize from the
second and the third strands. See also 
NANO-
TECHNOLOGY
,
BIOLOGY
,
NANOMETERS
  (
NM
),
MOLECULAR MACHINES
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
(
DNA
),
HYBRIDIZATION
  (
MOLECULAR GENETICS
),
SEQUENCE
 (
OF A DNA MOLECULE
),
COMPLEMEN-
TARY
  (
MOLECULAR GENETICS
),
SELF
-
ASSEMBLY
(
OF A LARGE MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
).
Bionics An interscience discipline for con-
structing artificial systems that resemble or
have the characteristics of living systems.
Bionics can encompass (in whole, or in part)
bioelectronics, biosensors, biomimetic mate-
rials, biophysics, biomotors, and self-assem-
bly (of a large molecular structure). See also
BIOLOGY
,
BIOELECTRONICS
,
BIOMIMETIC MATERI-
ALS
,
BIOSENSORS
  (
ELECTRONIC
),
BIOPHYSICS
,
BIOMOTORS
.
Biophysics An area of scientific study in which
physical principles, physical methods, and
physical instrumentation are used to study liv-
ing systems or systems related to life. It over-
laps with biophysical chemistry, which is
more specialized in scope since it is concerned
with the physical study of chemically isolated
substances found in living organisms.
Biopolymer A high molecular weight organic
compound found in nature, whose structure
can be represented by a repeated small unit
[i.e., monomer (links)]. Common biopoly-
mers include cellulose (long-chain sugars
found in most plants and the main constitu-
ent of dried woods, jute, flax, hemp, cotton,
etc.) and proteins in general, and specifically
collagen and gelatin. See also 
MOLECULAR
WEIGHT
,
PROTEIN
,
POLYMER
.
Bioreceptors Refers to fragments of DNA,
antibodies, protein molecules, and cellular
probes (e.g., adhesion molecule) when those
are attached to a man-made surface (e.g.,
biochip) for purposes of analyzing biologi-
cal substances. See also 
HYBRIDIZATION SUR-
FACES
,
BIOCHIPS
,
ANTIBODY
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC
ACID
  (
DNA
),
PROTEIN
,
ADHESION MOLECULE
,
ORPHAN RECEPTORS
,
MICROARRAY
 (
TESTING
).
Biorecovery The use of organisms (including
bacteria, plants, fungi, and algae) in the
recovery (collecting) of various metals
and/or organic compounds from ores or gar-
bage (other matrices). See also 
BIOLEACHING
,
CONSORTIA
,
BIOSORBENTS
,
PHYTOREMEDIATION
,
METABOLIC ENGINEERING
,
BACTERIA
,
FUNGUS
.
Bioremediation The use of organisms (plants,
bacteria, fungi, etc.) to consume or otherwise
help remove (biorecovery) materials (toxic
chemical wastes, metals, etc.) from a con-
taminated site (e.g., the land and ponds on
the site of an old refinery). See also 
BIORE-
COVERY
,
PHYTOREMEDIATION
,
METABOLIC ENGI-
NEERING
,
BIOLEACHING
,
BIODESULFURIZATION
,
ORGANISM
,
BACTERIA
,
FUNGUS
.
Biosafety See
CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL
DIVERSITY
 (
CBD
).
Biosafety Protocol See
CONVENTION ON BIO-
LOGICAL DIVERSITY
  (
CBD
),
INTERNATIONAL
PLANT PROTECTION CONVENTION
 (
IPPC
).
Bioseeds Plant seeds produced via genetic
engineering of existing plants. See also
GENETIC ENGINEERING
,
BIOLISTIC
®
GENE GUN
,
HERBICIDE
-
TOLERANT CROP
,
PAT GENE
,
EPSP SYN-
THASE
,
ALS GENE
,
CP4 EPSPS
,
GLYPHOSATE OXI-
DASE
,
CHOLESTEROL OXIDASE
,
HIGH
-
LYSINE
CORN
,
ACURON
™
GENE
,
HIGH
-
METHIONINE CORN
,
HIGH
-
PHYTASE CORN AND SOYBEANS
,
HIGH
-
STEARATE SOYBEANS
,
LOW
-
STACHYOSE SOYBEANS
,
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

B
LOX NULL
,
PLANT
’
S NOVEL TRAI
(
PNT
), “
SHOT-
GUN
”
METHOD
  [
TO INTRODUCE FOREIGN
  (
NEW
)
GENES INTO PLANT CELLS
],
BACILLUS THURINGIEN-
SIS
  (
B
.
t
.),
B
.
t
.
KURSTAKI
,
B
.
t
.
TENEBRIONIS
,
B
.
t
.
ISRAELENSIS
,
CRY PROTEINS
,
CRY
1
A
  (
b
)
PROTEIN
,
CRY
1
A
 (
c
)
PROTEIN
,
CRY
9
C PROTEIN
.
Biosensors (chemical) C h e m i c a l l y   b a s e d
devices that are able to detect and/or mea-
sure the presence of certain molecules
(DNA, antigens, pesticides, etc.). These
devices are currently created in the following
forms:
1. A two-part diagnostic test that can
detect the presence of trace amounts of
specific chemicals (e.g., pesticides).
The (chemical) biosensor consists of
an immobilized enzyme (to bind the
trace chemical) combined with a color
reagent (to indicate visually the pres-
ence of the trace chemical).
2. A one-part test that can detect specific
DNA segments in complex (“dirty,”
multiple component) samples. The bio-
sensor consists of 13-nm gold particles
onto which are attached numerous
nucleotide molecular chains. Each
nucleotide chain contains 28 nucleo-
tides. The 13 nucleotides that are closest
to each gold particle serve as a spacer,
and solutions containing such (spaced)
randomly distributed gold particles
appear red in color when illuminated
by light.
The 15 nucleotides that are farthest from
each gold particle are chosen to be comple-
mentary to, and thus bind to, nucleotide
sequences in the target (e.g., DNA) mole-
cule. In the presence of the specific target
molecule, a closely linked network of gold
particles and double-stranded nucleotide
molecular chains forms (overcoming the
13-nucleotide “spacer” which previously
held the gold particles apart). When double-
stranded chains form (i.e., target molecule is
present), the distance between gold particles
becomes less than the size of those particles,
making the solution containing (bound) par-
ticles appear blue in color when illuminated
by light. See also 
ENZYME
,
IMMUNOASSAY
,
NANOCRYSTAL MOLECULES
,
NANOTECHNOLOGY
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
  (
DNA
),
NANOMETERS
(
nm
),
ANTIGEN
,
SEQUENCE
 (
OF A DNA MOLECULE
),
NUCLEOTIDE
,
POLYMER
,
COMPLEMENTARY DNA
(
c-
DNA
),
DOUBLE HELIX
,
DUPLEX
,
SELF
-
ASSEMBLY
.
Biosensors (electronic) Electronic sensors
that are able to detect and measure the pres-
ence of biomolecules such as sugars or DNA
segments. Currently created by:
1. Fusing organic matter (e.g., enzymes,
antibodies, receptors, or nucleic acids)
to tiny electrodes; yielding devices that
convert natural chemical reactions into
electric current to measure blood levels
of certain chemicals (e.g., glucose or
insulin), control functions in an artifi-
cial organ, monitor some industrial
processes, act as a robot’s “nose,” etc.
2. Fusing organic matter (segment of
DNA, antibody, enzyme, etc.) onto the
surfaces of etched silicon wafers;
yielding devices that convert supramo-
lecular interactions [e.g., nucleotide
hybridization, enzyme-substrate bind-
ing, lectin-carbohydrate (sugar) inter-
actions, antibody-antigen binding,
host-guest complexation, etc.] into
electric current via a charge-coupled
device (CCD) detector. The CCD
detector measures the shift in interfer-
ence pattern caused by change in
refractive index that results when the
(sensed) molecule tightly binds to the
fused (electronic) organic matter. For
such an etched-silicon-wafer biosen-
sor, the nucleotide hybridization (bind-
i n g )   e n a b l e s   t h e   d e t e c t i o n   o f
f e m t o m o l a r   ( 1 0 - 1 5   m o l e   o r
0.000000000000001) concentrations
of DNA. If the (sensed) DNA segment
is not complementary to the fused
DNA segment, there is no significant
change in the interference pattern.
A major goal is to build future generations
of biosensors directly into computer chips.
(Researchers have discovered that proteins
can replace certain metals in semiconduc-
tors.) This would enable low-cost mass pro-
duction via processes similar to those now
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

B
used for existing semiconductor chips, with
circuits built right into the sensor to process
data picked up by the biological matter on
the chip. See also 
BIOCHIPS
,
QUARTZ CRYSTAL
MICROBALANCES
,
BIOELECTRONICS
,
ENZYME
,
GENOSENSORS
,
RECEPTORS
,
ANTIBODY
,
BIOINOR-
GANIC
,
INSULIN
,
COMBINATORIAL CHEMISTRY
,
SUBSTRATE
 (
CHEMICAL
),
LECTINS
,
SUGAR MOLE-
CULES
,
CARBOHYDRATES
  (
SACCHARIDES
),
GLU-
COSE
  (
GL
c
),
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
  (
DNA
),
NUCLEOTIDE
,
HYBRIDIZATION
  (
MOLECULAR
GENETICS
),
HYBRIDIZATION SURFACES
,
ANTIGEN
,
COMPLEMENTARY DNA
 (c-
DNA
),
GENE
,
NANO-
TECHNOLOGY
,
TEMPLATE
.
Biosilk A biomimetic, man-made fiber pro-
duced by:
1. Sequencing the “dragline silk” protein
that is produced by the orb-weaving
spider
2. Synthesizing genes to code for the
“dragline silk” protein (components)
3. Expressing those genes in a suitable
host (i.e., yeast, bacteria) to cause pro-
duction of the protein(s)
4. Dissolving the protein in a solvent, and
then “spinning” the protein into fiber
form by passing the liquid (dissolved
protein) through a small orifice, fol-
lowed by drying to remove the solvent
See also 
BIOMIMETIC MATERIALS
,
BIOPOLYMER
,
PROTEIN
,
SEQUENCING
 (
OF PROTEIN MOLECULES
),
GENE
,
GENE MACHINE
,
SYNTHESIZING
  (
OF DNA
MOLECULES
),
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
  (
DNA
),
EXPRESS
,
SUPERCRITICAL CARBON DIOXIDE
.
Biosorbents Microorganisms which, either by
themselves or in conjunction with a sup-
port/substrate system (e.g., inert granules)
effect the extraction (e.g., from ore) and/or
concentration of desired (precious) metals or
organic compounds by means of selective
retention of those entities. Retention of
organic compounds (e.g., gasoline) may be
for the purpose of cleaning polluted soil. See
also
BIORECOVERY
,
BIOLEACHING
,
CONSORTIA
.
Biosphere All the living matter on or in the
earth, the oceans and seas, and the atmo-
sphere. The area of the planet in which life
is found to occur.
Biosynthesis Production of a chemical com-
pound or entity by a living organism.
Biotechnology The means or way of manipu-
lating life forms (organisms) to provide desir-
able products for man’s use. For example,
beekeeping and cattle breeding could be con-
sidered to be biotechnology-related endeav-
ors. The word biotechnology, coined in 1919
by Karl Ereky, applies to the interaction of
biology with human technology. However,
usage of the word biotechnology in the U.S.
has come to mean all parts of an industry that
knowingly create, develop, and market a vari-
ety of products through the willful manipula-
tion, on a molecular level, of life forms, or
utilization of knowledge pertaining to living
systems. A common misconception is that
biotechnology refers only to recombinant
DNA (rDNA) work. However, recombinant
DNA is only one of the many techniques used
to derive products from organisms, plants,
and parts of both for the biotechnology indus-
try. A list of areas covered by the term bio-
technology would more properly include:
recombinant DNA, plant tissue culture, rDNA
or gene splicing, enzyme systems, plant
breeding, meristem culture, mammalian cell
culture, immunology, molecular biology, fer-
mentation, and others. See also 
GENETIC ENGI-
NEERING
,
BIORECOVERY
,
RECOMBINANT DNA
(
r
DNA
),
RECOMBINATION
,
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC
ACID
 (
DNA
),
BIOLEACHING
,
GENE SPLICING
,
MAM-
MALIAN CELL CULTURE
,
FERMENTATION
.
Biotechnology Industry Organization
(BIO) An American trade association com-
posed of companies and individuals involved
in biotechnology and in services to biotech-
nology companies (accounting, law, etc.).
Formed in 1993, the BIO was created by the
merger of its two predecessor trade associa-
tions — the Association of Biotechnology
Companies (ABC) and the Industrial Bio-
technology Association (IBA). The BIO
works with the government and the public
to promote safe and rational advancement of
genetic engineering and biotechnology. See
also
BIOTECHNOLOGY
,
ASSOCIATION OF BIOTECH-
NOLOGY COMPANIES
 (
ABC
),
INDUSTRIAL BIOTECH-
NOLOGY ASSOCIATION
 (
IBA
),
JAPAN BIOINDUSTRY
ASSOCIATION
,
SENIOR ADVISORY GROUP ON BIO-
TECHNOLOGY
 (
SAGB
).
© 2002 by CRC Press LLC

B
Biotic Stresses The stress (e.g., to crop plants)
caused by insects, bacteria, viruses, fungi,
nematodes, or other living things that attack
plants. See also 
NEMATODES
,
FUNGUS
,
VIRUS
,
BACTERIA
.
Biotin A B-complex vitamin, also known as
vitamin H, which is essential (required) for
life of many grain-eating insects as well as
for many of the metabolic pathways (series
of chemical reactions) involved in milk pro-
duction by cattle. All of the predominant
cellulolytic bacteria (i.e., those that break-
down cellulose molecules) within the rumen
(first stomach) of cattle require biotin for
them to be able to grow. Biotin (within cer-
tain molecules) acts as a coenzyme in car-
boxylation reactions, thereby playing a
critical role in gluconeogenesis, fatty acid
synthesis (manufacture), and protein synthe-
sis reactions occurring within all animals.
Biotin enzymes are inhibited (blocked) by
the protein avidin. Since insects must have
biotin to live, avidin might be a useful ingre-
dient to add to grain in order to protect it
from insects such as weevils during storage.
See also 
VITAMIN
,
METABOLISM
,
INTERMEDIARY
METABOLISM
,
PATHWAY
,
BACTERIA
,
CELLULOSE
,
LYSIS
,
ENZYME
,
COENZYME
,
WEEVILS
,
GLUCONEO-
GENESIS
,
FATTY ACID
,
PROTEIN
,
AVIDIN
.