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partisan political parties is just one manifestation of an important family of
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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
partisan political parties is just one manifestation of an important family of nonprofessional influences on school mathematics in the United States. Our long-standing tradition of broad access to free public schooling and control of school policy by local, often elected, school boards means that many people outside the school and university communities are interested in and express opinions about school matters. Changes in school curricula must generally be approved by lay governing boards. Those same boards are usually interested in quantitative evidence that schools are effective, so they mandate extensive testing programs. The test data commonly makes its way into public media reports on schools, and there are frequent debates about the causes and cures of poor performance. Thus decisions about what math- ematics is most important for students to learn and what instructional meth- JAMES T. FEY 23 ECLECTIC APPROACHES TO ELEMENTARIZATION ods are likely to be most effective are commonly made in an environment that must take account of nonprofessional public opinion. The classic example of extraschool influences on educational practice is the new math movement of the 1960s and early 1970s. While there are cer- tainly significant professional differences of opinion about the wisdom of various innovations from that period, the influence of those differences on the course of the attempted reform is probably modest when compared to the influence of public attitudes and perceptions. The goals of the reform were not clearly understood by or explained to the public constituents of ed- ucation, and when implementation of the reform agenda coincided with de- clines in some closely watched national assessment indicators, the public outcry was dramatic. Whether or not new math curricula and teaching meth- ods were successful or not, the importance of winning public confidence in educational reform ideas was made very clear. As important as it is to consider political and public opinion factors, the most important way that the context of mathematics education affects trans- formation of content goals into effective teaching materials and activities is through our students. The United States is a very large and populous coun- try, but it is also incredibly diverse. Students in typical public schools come with a variety of natural aptitudes and interests in school, from a broad range of family backgrounds, cultural traditions, and conditions of eco- nomic advantage or disadvantage. We are a nation of immigrants with dozens of different languages spoken as native tongue by millions of stu- dents. We are a transient people, with some large city schools experiencing 50% to75% student turnover in the course of a single school year. Each of these factors influences the formation of school curricula. For ex- ample, with compulsory schooling through at least age 16, our curricula must meet the needs of students whose achievement and interests commonly spread over great ranges; but our commitment to democratic social institu- tions implies common experiences for most students. One of the most striking statements in the NCTM Standards, and a number of other contem- porary goals for mathematical education, is the assertion that all students are entitled to and capable of a rich and demanding mathematical curriculum. In a subject like mathematics, which has traditionally differentiated curricula for students of different aptitude and prior achievement, this challenge to provide mathematical power to all students has striking implications for cur- riculum design and teaching. American schools have also been challenged to provide curricula that re- spect the diversity of cultural backgrounds of our students (overcoming the common Eurocentric bias of mathematics curricula, for instance) and to make sure that we present mathematics in a way that encourages girls, as well as boys, to high achievement. At the same time, we must organize cur- ricula in a way that is robust enough to develop coherent understanding among students who too often come from unstable and unsupportive home 24 JAMES T. FEY situations. While some of these demands on school mathematics may seem to have little to do with the task of elementarization of subject matter, they are, in fact, very important considerations in the transformation of mathe- matics for instruction. If, as Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) suggest, all learning is essentially situated, it is critical that we embed important math- ematical ideas in situations that are meaningful to the full range of students with whom we are working. If it is a fact of school life that many of our stu- dents will attend only sporadically, we must be wary of curriculum organi- zations that present mathematics in tightly structured hierarchies of interde- pendent skills. In fact, one of the most promising effects of technology on school mathematics is the promise that the traditional litany of detailed computational skills can be superseded by a small number of widely appli- cable macroprocedures. For instance, in place of the myriad of transforma- tion rules for solving algebraic equations, we can emphasize the macropro- cedure of graphing each side and searching by successive approximation for intersection points. Finally, while we consider the effects of political and student contexts for our mathematics programs, we must also attend to the knowledge, interests, aptitudes, and values of the teachers who will be principal agents of instruc- tion. One of the most obvious features of recent curriculum development in the United States is the fact that some truly imaginative and powerful cur- riculum materials have been produced, but that the teaching skills required to use those materials effectively are not widely available in schools. The task of transforming mathematical ideas into curriculum materials and plans for teaching activities is challenging. But the task of transforming those ma- terials and activity plans into effective classroom experiences for students is equally demanding. Thus any plan for new curricula must take seriously the teacher capabilities (and school resources) in the settings in which those materials will be used. 6. CONCLUSIONS What then are the prospects for developing a theory of elementarization – principles of preparing mathematics for students? It seems safe to say that, in the United States, curriculum development is practiced as an art, not a science. Moreover, in the survey of issues and experiences recounted in this paper, we have suggested that the enterprise is so complex that the likeli- hood of discovering any more than weak principles for a theory of elemen- tarization seems remote. Does this conclusion imply that curriculum formation is inevitably a hopelessly haphazard and intuitive activity? I think not. American educators tend not, on the whole, to take particularly theoretical approaches to their work. A predominantly practical orientation seems part of our national character. 25 26 REFERENCES American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (1989). Science for all Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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