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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
teachers themselves opt to ignore the content in favour of the form of what
a student has said as part of their teaching strategies. By means of a detailed study of some science and mathematics teaching in a classroom (particularly a set of lessons involving exploring relations among various features of a simple pendulum), Edwards and Mercer exam- ine the rhetoric of "progressive" education in English elementary schools. They focus on the disparity between the level of freedom accorded the stu- dents at the level of action and that at the level of discourse and "genera- tion" of the knowledge. They also detail various indirect teacher devices for constructing the "common knowledge" in the classroom, identifying: con- MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM LANGUAGE 162 trolling the flow of conversation; determining who is allowed to speak, when and about what; use of silence to mark non-acceptance of a student's offering; reconstructing (and reformulating) "recaps" of what has been said, done or ostensibly discovered. All of these devices are common features of mathematics lessons. One key focus they allude to is that of teacher questions. "Teachers may all be obliged to control classes and lessons, but they choose particular strategies for doing so .... However, there has been hardly any research on teachers’ purposes in asking questions" (Edwards & Mercer, 1988, p. 30). One researcher who has undertaken an exploration of this topic in the context of mathematics classrooms is Janet Ainley (1987, 1988). She has insightfully explored the varied functions of questions and how they are in- terpreted by students. She discovered many mismatches in interpretation of videotaped extracts of teaching. These excerpts were shown to elementary students and their teachers separately and they were asked about why they thought the teacher asked a particular question. The notion of the purpose of "focusing question" is of particular appositeness in mathematics, due to the problem of indicating where a student’s attention should be (see, also, Love & Mason, 1991). As I mentioned earlier, within natural language there are conventionally two main channels, those of speech and writing. (It is important, however, not to ignore the particular nature of working with mathematics and either the deaf – e.g., Barham & Bishop, 1991 – or the visually impaired.) One difficulty facing all teachers of mathematics is how to facilitate their students' moving from the predominantly informal spoken language, with which they are all pretty fluent (Brown, 1982), to the formal written language, which is frequently seen as the hallmark of much mathematical activity. The diagram below (Figure 1) indicates two alternative routes, and highlights different classroom practices in terms of working with students. Route A encourages students to write down their informal utterances, which are then worked on in terms of increasing the adequacy of the written form to stand on its own (e.g., by use of brackets or other written devices to con- DAVID PIMM 163 MATHEMATICS CLASSROOM LANGUAGE vey similar information to that which is conveyed orally by emphasis or in- tonation). Route B involves work on the formality and self-sufficiency of the spoken language prior to its being written down. This usually involves constraints being placed on the communicative situation, in order to high- light attention to the language used. Reporting back, mentioned earlier, of- fers one such instance of this latter route. Students learning mathematics in school in part are attempting to acquire communicative competence in both spoken and written mathematical lan- guage. Educational linguist Michael Stubbs claims (1980, p. 115): "A gen- eral principle in teaching any kind of communicative competence, spoken or written, is that the speaking, listening, writing or reading should have some genuine communicative purpose." Is this at odds with viewing a mathematics classroom as an avowedly, deliberately, un-natural, artificial setting, one constructed and controlled with particular aims in mind, one in which the structure and organization of the discourse by the teacher has some quite unusual features? 4. LOOKING TOWARDS THE FUTURE: FORM, FUNCTION AND FORCE In the second half of this chapter, I turn to some of these particular features of mathematical classroom discourse that I am currently emphasizing in my own work. I focus in particular on the nature of teacher-student spoken in- teractions and forms of speech. 4.1 Meta-Knowledge and Mela-Commenting My first proposed area for work involves examining the knowledge and levels of awareness students have (whether tacit or explicitly available) of some of the teacher’s forms of utterance, and the extent to which they are identified as part of the role of being a teacher – as opposed to forming as- pects of the idiolect of that individual (who happens to be their teacher). Explorations might be carried out where, for instance, students are recorded working in groups to see whether certain students "take on" some of the teacher’s functions (acting in loco domini whether by agreement or asser- tion) and what language forms they use in so doing. By continuing to record student conversations when the teacher arrives at such a group, transitions to and from "teacher discourse" may be recorded. Some teachers explicitly attempt to "hand over" some of their function- ings to groups. If a teacher arrives at a table asking "What question am I about to ask you?", a different interpretative task is being offered from the one initiated by the request "Tell me what you are doing." The teacher question "What question am I about to ask you?" is a meta-question de- signed to encourage students to notice the teacher’s interventions as regular and systematic. It also carries with it the implicit suggestion that the student 164 DAVID PIMM might take on the particular function that the teacher has been carrying out up until now by asking the same question of herself. In a paper entitled Organizing classroom talk, Stubbs (1975) offers the notion that one of the characterizing aspects of teaching discourse as a speech event is that it is constantly organized by meta-comments, namely that the utterances made by students are seen as appropriate items for com- ment themselves, and, in addition, that many of the meta-remarks are evalu- ative. He comments: 165 The phenomenon that I have discussed here under the label of meta-communica- tion, has also been pointed out by Garfinkel and Sacks (1970). They talk of "for- mulating" a conversation as a feature of that conversation. A member may treat some part of the conversation as an occasion to describe that conversation, to explain it, or characterise it, or explicate, or translate, or summarise, or furnish the gist of it, or take note of its accordance with rules, or remark on its departure from rules. That is to say, a member may use some part of the conversation as an occasion to formulate the conversation. I have given examples of these different kinds of "formulating" in teacher-talk. However, Garfinkel and Sacks go on to point out that to explicitly describe what one is about in a conversation, during that conversation, is generally regarded as boring, incongruous, inappropriate, pedantic, devious, etc. But in teacher-talk, "formulating" is appropriate; features of speech do provide occasions for stories worth the telling. I have shown that teachers do regard as matters for competent remarks such matters as: the fact that somebody is speaking, the fact that another can hear, and whether another can understand. (Stubbs, 1975, pp. 23-24) A glance at any mathematics lesson transcript bears out Stubbs’ claim – the language students use is more often in focus by the teacher than what they are trying to say with it. In addition to the general categories mentioned above, here is a more interesting "example" of more particular relevance to mathematics. Zena: Can I just rub it out? Teacher: Yes, do. [With slight irony, as she has already rubbed out the final 3 with her finger and changed it to a 4.] You can even use a board rubber if you want to. Zena: [Looks at the teacher who is standing at the back of the class] Is that all right? Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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