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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
Didactics of Mathematics as a Scientific Discipline, 213-223.
© 1994 Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. INTELLIGENT TUTORIAL SYSTEMS school system by means of ITS that can be implemented, on school comput- ers, thus making the teacher superfluous. The cognitive psychologist J. R. Anderson, however, already hopes that the comparably low level of the US- American school system can be raised by developing intelligent tutorial systems (Anderson, 1992). To justify these hopes, he refers to empirical studies that furnish the (not very surprising) evidence that having a student taught by a private teacher is much more efficient than collective teaching in the classroom. The requirements addressed to an ITS that is to take over the functions of a private teacher are derived from the qualifications asked from a human private teacher. 1. The teacher must be an expert on the subject in question. In this func- tion, the teacher must be able to answer student questions pertaining to the discipline, to solve tasks put to the student, and to analyze student answers for bugs and misconceptions. 2. The teacher must know how to present the subject matter in an appro- priate way and which tools must be placed at the student's disposal in order to free teaching from unnecessary ballast. 3. The teacher must have an idea of each student's knowledge and skills and be able to adapt his or her own hypothetical student model dynamically to the student's learning progress. 4. The teacher must have knowledge about the curriculum (subject mat- ter, learning goals, etc.), and have methodological knowledge and a reper- toire of tutorial strategies at his or her disposal in order to be able to inter- vene tutorially in an optimal way at any point. These four requirements allow us to comprehend the classical architec- ture of an ITS as an integrated information-processing system with an ex- pert module, an environmental module, a module for student modeling, and a tutor module (Wenger, 1987). While research is far advanced in some fields, achieving results that are significant from a mathematics education perspective as well (e.g., the anal- ysis of systematic bugs and their causes in written subtraction, the transfor- mation of algebraic terms, and linear equations), there is as yet no ITS for teaching in school that meets the high requirements of an ITS in all four components and can additionally be run on hardware available in schools. In spite of rapid progress in the development of hardware and software, the two requirements can hardly be reconciled at present for technical reasons alone. And the immense cost in time required to develop an ITS reduces the probability of much change in the present situation, if there is no success in developing shells, authoring systems (Lewis, Milson, & Anderson, 1987), or, at least, transferable architectures for individual modules of certain classes of intelligent tutorial system. 214 3. HERON, AN ITS TO SOLVE WORD PROBLEMS As an example for an ITS, I shall present the system HERON developed by the Swiss cognitive psychologist K.Reusser to solve word problems. HERON has the following features in common with the geometry tutor de- veloped by J. R. Anderson (Anderson, Boyle, & Yost, 1985) and frequently discussed in the literature, but not presented here for reasons of space: 1. The system exists not only as a prototype but also as a user-friendly software that can be run on school computers and has already been tested with students. (Results of testing Anderson' geometry tutor are reported in Wertheimer 1990.) 2. The subject-matter field is highly relevant for mathematics education. 3. The development of HERON is based on convincing principles of cognitive psychology and pedagogy. 4. The tutor does not support individualized tutorial strategies. The founding principles, however, express diverging views of the two re- searchers concerning the function of an ITS. Anderson developed the anal- ysis modules of his tutors (geometry tutor, Lisp tutor) primarily as cognitive student models within the framework of his own cognitive (ACT*) theory. He thus sees his theory confirmed where his tutors perform in practice. In contrast, K. Reusser considers that the demand addressed to an ITS of re- placing an intelligent and adaptive teacher by a cognitive student modeling alone is a possible long-term objective whose desirability must also be questioned (Reusser, 1991). According to Reusser, "intelligence" should not be concentrated in the computer, but rather be spread out across the entire pedagogical setting, with the learner at its center. Not the computer, but the learner assisted by the computer should establish diagnoses, set goals, and make plans (Reusser, 1991). GERHARD HOLLAND 215 3.1 Method of Solution and Problem Solving in Dialogue With HERON HERON supports all word problems that can be solved with the so-called simplex method used in many German school textbooks. We shall explain how the simplex method is applied in the tutorial system HERON with an example taken from Reusser (1991; see Figure 1). The lower right-hand window contains the word problem. The student solves the problem in dia- logue with HERON by forward chaining in the following steps: Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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