Chapter 1 lexicology as a part of linguistics: types and approaches

CHAPTER 2
THE NOTION OF PHRASEOLOGY: ITS ORIGIN AND TYPES
The most important element in defining each country's ideas, culture, and outlook on the world is its language. Proverbs and sayings from various countries are not the same, much as ideologies, worldviews, and civilizations do not resemble one another. Nida, one of the greatest linguists, once observed that it is crucial to understand a nation's language while studying its culture. His theory holds that language and culture have a mutually reliant relationship that was created simultaneously. According to his explanation, "Cultural elements are closely entwined with the language, and hence are reflected in the forms of the language morphologically and structurally" (V. Teliya, N. Bragina, E. Oparina, I. Sandomirskaya, 1998:55).
Phraseology is the area of linguistics that investigates the historical evolution and current phraseological structure of a language. Phraseological units are distinguished from word groupings generated but not often employed in speech by linguists with expertise in this field, and these differences are utilized to define the characteristics of phraseological units. The range of phraseology is largest when phraseological units are determined by the standard of common usage in a fixed form, regardless of the word group's semantic unity or its ability to be divided into the meanings of its individual words. When such usage is unrelated to the nominative or communicative value of the unit, phraseology's application is likewise at its broadest. On the other hand, when phraseological units are determined by the criteria of the semantic unity of the meaning of the word group and of the word group's equivalence to a single word in terms of nominative function, the range of phraseology is constrained (https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/phraseology).
The classification of proverbs and sayings as phraseological units is debatable among scholars, as is the classification of patterned word groups with a defined meaning, such as vpadat' v iarost', vpadat' v beshenstvo, and vpadat' v vostorg ("to fall into a rage," "to fly into a passion," and "to go into raptures," respectively). Phraseology experts deal with a variety of issues. These experts examine the phraseological unit markers in order to assess the degree to which phraseological units may be reduced to systems. They identify the distinctive qualities of words and word meanings in phraseological units and define the synonymity, antonymity, polysemy, homonymy, and variations of phraseological units. Phenomenologists also identify the relationships between phraseological units and components of speech, ascertain the grammatical function of phraseological units, and investigate how new word meanings are formed in connection to phraseological context. Some linguists assert that language has a unique phraseological level and limit their analysis to the systematic interactions between phraseological units. Other linguists investigate the link between phraseological units and the full lexical and semantic structure of a language, as well as with syntax and word creation. Phraseology experts also research the stylistic variations between various phraseological components.
Phraseological units have been studied using a variety of techniques. Structure and semantic descriptions are mostly described using the synchronic categorization approach. Research on the ability of word components to create phrases as well as a dynamic approach to describing the structure of phraseological units predominate when focus is placed on the individual word components of phraseological units. Other classification systems connect the structural components of phraseological units to free word groupings. The methods of distributional analysis are used to describe the interactions between phraseological units' structural components and aspects of their surrounding environment.
Through the efforts of V. V. Vinogradov and his school, phraseology research in Soviet linguistics developed into a distinct field of study in the 1940s and 1950s. A. A. Potebnia, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A. A. Shakhmatov, K. Brugmann, H. Paul, and O. Jesperson had conducted earlier work on phraseology. These linguists have identified closely connected word groupings in speech that were both semantically unsystematized and syntactically indivisible. C. Bally established the theoretical underpinnings for the functional and semantic study of phraseological units within the context of lexicology.
Soviet research on lexical and semantic variety and its phraseological expressions, as well as an understanding of the word group as a syntactic category comparable in terms of nominative function to the word, served as catalysts for the formation of phraseology as a separate field of study. The study of fixed word groupings as the sentence's structural pillars resulted from this perspective. Soviet linguists focus largely on the national languages of the USSR when analyzing the phraseological makeup of languages with various structural types. They employ strategies created by many movements and academic movements in their phraseology research. Soviet phraseological study is centralized at the University of Samarkand, where a center for phraseological studies was established.
Each language's phraseology contributes significantly to the creation of metaphorical worldviews. Understanding the phraseology can help you understand the people's histories and personalities better. Phraseologisms and vocabulary are closely related. Their research contributes to a better understanding of lexical units in speech, education, and vocabulary structure. When we use this phrase, our tongue immediately curls into a different idea that represents the previous idea. This is the word used for phraseological units (PU). They are specialized linguistic tools that focus every language's originality and distinctiveness. When we look at PU from this angle, the idea of "phraseology" in its broadest sense is revealed. In a narrow sense, phraseology is a section of linguistics that studies stable speech speed (Kunin A.V., 1984:942).
The linguist S. Balli, a representative of the French school of linguistics, developed the idea of PU for the first time (Кунин А. В., 1996:380). He described the PU as "combinations that have firmly penetrated the language." In their publications on the study of PU, English and American researchers like L.P. Smith, A. Mackay, J. Seidlou, and W. McMordi utilize the word "idiom." They refer to an expression as an idiom if its value cannot be deduced from the values of its constituent parts. Phraseology is like a charming museum filled with examples of a country's wonderful and enduring customs and traditions, historical monuments, fairy tales, and melodies. In addition to being the most colorful component of language, phraseology is also its most democratic layer (https://7universum.com/pdf/philology/6(84)%20[11.06.2021]/Farmonova.pdf ).
Phraseology was used to the study of literature for the first time. Inseparable word combinations become hard to translate while translating certain novels from one language to another. The study of those languages' phraseological unities followed. The English literary critic Neander used the term phraseology for the first time in philology in 1558. Neander had to utilize this phrase when he was interpreting the literary works. Although the majority of phraseological resources are found in vocabulary and other sources, linguistics-related publications seldom include research on phraseology theory.
The study of English phraseology has previously taken place within the contexts of grammar, stylistics, lexicography, and language history. The study of later phraseology is a subfield of lexicology. As linguistics evolved, phraseology is today recognized and studied as a separate field of linguistics in the majority of languages. It is important to note that some intellectuals from Eastern Europe and Russia studied this area for their writings. Many accomplishments were made. Despite the fact that French academic Charlie Bally introduced the word phraseologie to the field, Western European and American linguists did not utilize it in their works. Bally employs stylish phraseology.
Russian academic V.V. Vinogradov also advocated for phraseology to be studied as a separate area of linguistics. The distinction between phraseological unities and semantic groupings is one of V.V. Vinogradov's greatest contributions. Phraseology remained a component of lexicology despite the lack of clear-cut evidence that it could stand alone as a separate branch of linguistics. Thus, phraseology was taught as a component of lexicology. Scholar B. A. Larin was the first to advocate for independent study of phraseology after E. D. Polivanov and V. V. Vinogradov. He declared that there wasn't enough scientific study done on phraseology. According to the Russian linguist A.V. Kunin, phraseology has left the lexicology circle since its scope and importance have increased. Despite the fact that there have been numerous, occasionally contentious viewpoints presented about phraseology, there have also been several scientific study projects. N.N. Amosova, A.V. Kunin, V.A. Smirnitsky, S.S. Gorelik, V.L. Arkhangelsky, V.V. Vinogradov, B.A. Larin, I.A. Melchuk, I.I. Revzin, S.N. Savitskaya, and Yu.D. Apresan are just a few of the exceptional linguists who have made significant contributions to this field (Amosova N.N., 1963:210).
The meaning of phraseology is decided by rethinking rather than being inferred from the value of the total of its parts. This is so because the phraseological phrase is not a free phrase; rather, reproducibility is one of its key characteristics. The expressions "white lie," "black gold," "black market," and "yellow papers" are PUs that are recalled from memory similarly to individual words, whereas the expressions "white snow," "black pen," and "yellow pencil" are free combinations that are produced from different words during dialogue. Any alteration to these PU's syntactic or semantic structure results in an irreversible loss of meaning. It has been emphasized time and time again that phraseology is thought to be the study of word-groups that have been functionally and semantically evaluated as indivisible entities.
The proper scientific research of English phraseology has only lately been attempted, it should be stressed. By highlighting some of their distinctive points of view, styles, origins, and use, English and American linguists attempted to compile a variety of words, word clusters, and phrases. Despite the fact that they are typically referred to as idioms, no attempt has been made to examine them as a distinct class of linguistic units. However, the words already in use, such as set-phrases, idioms, and word equivalents, represent the primary points of contention in phraseology to some extent. The term "set-phrase" emphasizes that the stability of lexical elements and word-group grammatical structure is the fundamental criteria of distinction. The word "idioms" often implies that the idiomaticity or lack of motivation is the fundamental characteristic of the language units under discussion (Кунин А. В., 1996:480).
One way the national attitude manifests itself in language is through phraseology. Idioms convey the nation's linguocultural code and encompass a larger portion of the human experience thanks to the images, symbolism, and stereotypes they include. They are a reflection of the nation's moral ideals, which make up the core elements of the national culture, as well as the people's wisdom and centuries of history. Phraseological units, according to V.N. Teliya, "are related with cultural and national norms, stereotypes, myths, and so on, and while being utilized in speech they indicate the attitude distinctive for a given linguocultural society" (Teliya V. N.,, 1996:64).
Phraseological units play a significant role in the formation of language and culture, according to S.G. Ter-Minasova. "The idiomatic layer of the language, i.e. in the layer which, by definition, is specific for each particular nation, stores the values, public morals, and attitude toward the world, to people, and to other nations," she writes. Idioms, proverbs, and sayings serve to represent a nation's way of life, geographic location, history, and customs as well as the community's shared cultural heritage (Ter-Minasova S. G., 2000:80).
Phraseological units most fully and clearly reflect various aspects of life and living conditions of a certain people, their collective consciousness, and centuries-old experience of the people, preserved in the form of verbal utterances. The semantic structure of phraseological units is primarily dependent on extra-linguistic factors. Idioms "seem to force a certain picture of the world and the circumstance on the speaker".
The phraseological system in a given language can provide the same phenomena of the reality surrounding people both exactly the same and entirely distinct interpretations. For instance, the same idioms, which are exact semantic, structural, and grammatical equivalents, are used in Russian, English, and French to describe quick and decisive action when it is necessary to start with the most important thing without hesitation: "to take the bull by the horns" and "prendre le taureau par les cornes." The bull is a dangerous and obstinate animal; to get it to comply; you must be bold and determined. In these phraseological units, the bull represents an urgent situation or a work that needs to be completed immediately.
These are such idioms as: когда рак свистнет (literally: when the crawfish whistles) – when pigs fly – tous les trent-six du mois (literally: all thirty-six days of the month) are combined by the meaning “is not known when, in the indefinite future, never,” but the choice of images is different. These examples show that national and cultural identity of the phraseological fund manifests itself in the comparison of two or more languages. Let us consider the manifestation of cultural identity with the help of the example of phraseological units with the component воздух/air in Russian, English.
The definitions of "air" as "the breathing environment of a human being" and "the mixture of gases that comprise the Earth's atmosphere" are present in two languages being analyzed and serve as the inner images of the phraseological units being analyzed.
As is well known, the natural elements of earth, fire, water, and air play a significant role in people's lives. All living things on our planet depend on air as their primary supply of oxygen. One of the primary components of the cosmos according to mythology is air, which is also known as breath, the wind's blow, and the essence of life (bibl.: Holy Spirit).
Although it gives life, air also has the power to take it away. Both angels, who are heavenly messengers, and demons, who are the evil's representatives, reside in the air. These ideas are all connected to the idea of air, and the language reflects them all. After comparing phraseological units with the component водуx/air in two languages, it was discovered that the basis of many figurative idioms is one of the air's most crucial jobs, which is to sustain all life on Earth. Breathing and access to oxygen-rich, clean air are essential for maintaining human existence. It is common knowledge about air, as evidenced by the phraseologisms below: Russian expressions for "about something crucial, vital" include "in the fresh air," "outside," and "as if it were air." English equivalents include "coming up for air" and "take the air." In this regard, the following English idiom-come up for air-which is a borrowing from Australian English-is intriguing from the perspective of national identity.
This phraseologism is a creative reinterpretation of the phrase "free combination come up for air," which has undergone semantic updating after changing its precise meaning. This phrase is perhaps a ripoff of pearl hunters' discourse (Kunin, 1984:35).
Phraseological units can be divided into three major groupings based on the degree of idiomaticity: phraseological fusions, phraseological unities, and phraseological collocations.