Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
PART II ORGANOMETALLIC SYNTHESIS AND CATALYSIS
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PART II
ORGANOMETALLIC SYNTHESIS AND CATALYSIS 111 9 COMPLEXES WITH PROTIC N-HETEROCYCLIC CARBENE (NR,NH-NHC) LIGANDS F. Ekkehardt Hahn Institut f¨ur Anorganische und Analytische Chemie, Westf¨alische Wilhelms-Universit¨at M¨unster, M¨unster, Germany 9.1 INTRODUCTION Enzymatic reactions are often based on the combination of molecular recognition and catalysis. Multiple noncovalent interactions between the substrate and the active site of the enzyme lead to a high degree of substrate selectivity, and regio- or stereoselective catalytic reactions can be achieved this way [1]. Adaption of these principles to homogeneous catalysis with transition metal complexes has led to the emerging field of supramolecular catalysis, in which the recognition, selection, and/or orientation of a given substrate by the catalyst is based on supramolecular interactions [2]. Although different research groups have tried to combine classical transition metal catalysis with noncovalent substrate recognition and binding, only few approaches combining high substrate selectivity and rate enhancement in the catalytic transformation have been reported to date [3]. Among the early examples is the rhodium-catalyzed asymmetric hydrogenation of trisubstituted acrylic acids in the presence of a chiral (aminoalkyl)ferrocenylphosphine where the stereoselectivity of the reaction is believed to result from an interaction of the amino group of the ferrocenylphosphine with the carboxyl group of the substrate [4]. Later, manganese-porphyrins with attached cyclodextrin groups have been shown to catalyze the regioselective hydroxylation of steroid derivatives via an interaction of the substituents at the steroid with the cyclodextrin groups, thereby causing the proper orientation of the substrate [5]. In addition, the hydrogen bonding between the carboxylic acid groups of a Mn( μ- O
)Mn-coordinated ligand and the carboxyl group of ibuprofen led to a specific substrate orientation, thereby enabling the regioselective functionalization of sp 3 C
et al. [7] introduced the concept of a temporary substrate-bound reagent-directing group for catalytic hydroformylations. Here, the substrate is covalently linked to a phosphine. Simultaneous coordination of the phosphine and the functional group of the substrate to rhodium(I) allowed for highly regio- and stereoselective transformations. A major drawback of this approach is the required covalent linkage of the substrate to the phosphine. More recently, efforts have been directed toward the design of catalytically active complexes bearing ligands that can interact and arrange substrates via noncovalent interactions. Such an orientation can, for example, be achieved via the formation of hydrogen bonds between a ligand coordinated to the catalytically active metal center and a suitable functional group of the substrate [8]. In selected cases, hydrogen bonding between coordinated ligands and substrate molecules enforced a substrate orientation that enabled highly selective rhodium-catalyzed hydrogenation [9] or hydroformylation [10] reactions. The potential of catalytically active complexes bearing protonated pyrazole [11], oxime [12], amine [13], or protic N- heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligands [14] capable of forming hydrogen bonds to selected substrate molecules has also been recognized. Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
114 COMPLEXES WITH PROTIC N-HETEROCYCLIC CARBENE (NR,NH-NHC) LIGANDS N N
ML x R N N R ML x H N N H ML x H H N N ML x R N N O
B C D N N O Figure 9.1 Complexes bearing NR,NR- (A), NR,NH- (B), and NH,NH-substituted (C) N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHC)s and hydrogen bonding between a coordinated NR,NH-NHC and DMPU (D). We became interested in supramolecular catalysis using complexes bearing the currently ubiquitous NHC ligands [15]. Different NHC ligands have been employed as spectator ligands for the preparation of various catalytically active metal complexes [16]. In most of these complexes, the NHC ligand is responsible for imparting the desired steric and electronic properties to the metal center. Consequently, in complexes bearing the commonly used N,N -dialkylated NR,NR-NHC ligands (Fig. 9.1A), the catalytic transformations take place at the NHC-coordinated metal center. As an expansion of this concept, we have studied the coordination chemistry of complexes bearing protic NHC ligands, that is, NHC ligands featuring an NR,NH (B) or NH,NH (C) substitution pattern (Fig. 9.1) [15c,d]. The N −H groups in complexes of types B and C are potent hydrogen bond donors that might function as molecular recognition units. Contrary to many related compounds [6, 9, 10], the N −H moiety/recognition unit in complexes of types B and C is located in proximity to the metal center. For example, complexes of type C have been shown by 1 H NMR spectroscopy to engage in hydrogen bonds between the N −H group of the NHC ligand and the hydrogen bond acceptor DMPU in solution (Fig. 9.1D) [17]. Complex [Rh(Cl)(PPh 3 ) 2 (NR,NH-NHC)] bearing a protic NR,NH-NHC ligand provided proof of concept for a catalytic reaction that is preceded by a recognition equilibrium [17]. In competitive hydrogenation experiments with 1-dodecene and 3- butenoic acid ester using [Rh(Cl)(PPh 3 )
(NR,NH-NHC)] as the catalyst, the substrate with the carbonyl function was clearly preferred. This preference is most likely based on simultaneous olefin coordination to the metal center and a precatalytic interaction of the carbonyl group of the substrate with the N −H group of the NR,NH-NHC ligand leading to a two-point interaction between the substrate and the catalyst. Hydrogenation of the C =C double bond leads to a one-point interaction (N −H· · ·O-substrate) that facilitates the substitution of the hydrogenated substrate for another molecule of 3-butenoic acid ester, thereby preventing the deactivation of the catalyst [17]. Apart from providing hydrogen bond donors, coordinated protic NHC ligands can be deprotonated at the ring-nitrogen atom followed by reaction with an electrophile. Thus, complexes of types B and C are easily mono- or dialkylated. Such alkylation reactions can be utilized for the template-controlled synthesis of linear or macrocyclic homodonor (E) or heterodonor (F) ligands (Scheme 9.1) [15d]. In this contribution, a review on methods for the preparation of complexes bearing protic NR,NH- and NH,NH-NHCs is presented. In addition, potential applications for these complexes are discussed.
Compared to their analogs bearing the ubiquitous NR,NR-NHCs complexes featuring protic NR,NH- and NH,NH-NHC ligands have received much less attention. This can be attributed to the more challenging synthetic protocols required for the preparation of complexes with protic NHC ligands. Unlike NR,NR-substituted azolium cations that are easily deprotonated at the C2-position to yield the free NHCs, neutral NR- or NH-substituted azoles are not this easily deprotonated at the C2 atom and the NHC complexes obtained after such a deprotonation are prone to tautomerization leading to complexes COMPLEXES WITH NR,NH- AND NH,NH-NHCS FROM CYCLIC LIGAND PRECURSORS 115 HN NH M N H H N H N N H NH HN X X N N M N N N N N N - 8 HX
n+ n+ HN NH ML
n+ P
R R X X P P R R X X HN NH M L
base - 2 HbaseX P P R R N N M L
E F Scheme 9.1 Template-controlled synthesis of homodonor (E) or heterodonor (F) ligands. N N
N N Et Li 1. [AuCl(PPh 3 )]
1. [W(CO) 5 (THF)] 2. HCl N N R Au N N R Li H H N N Et W(CO) 5 H
1 Cl
Synthesis of complexes bearing protic NHCs from C2-lithiated azoles. with N-coordinated azoles [17, 18]. While it has been calculated that the free imidazolin-2-ylidene is less stable than its isomer imidazole, these calculations also predict that protic NHC ligands could be stabilized by π-basic metal centers or by hydrogen bonding involving the β-NH group of the NHC ligand [19]. Complexes with protic NHC ligands have been prepared from neutral azole precursors. In spite of the problems often encountered during the deprotonation of neutral N-alkylimidazoles, some complexes bearing protic NHC ligands have been generated from C2-lithiated azoles followed by N-protonation as depicted in Scheme 9.2. Complex 1 is stable [20a], but complexes of type 2 have been shown to tautomerize to the complexes bearing N-bound azoles [17]. The C2-deprotonation of various thiazoles and the use of the resulting salts for the preparation of NHC complexes have been demonstrated by Raubenheimer [20b]. Tautomerization of N-bound azoles can be utilized for the generation of complexes bearing protic NHC ligands. For example, Taube and coworkers [21] reported as early as 1974 the acid-promoted tautomerization of the N-coordinated imidazole in 3 to yield complexes 4 −6 bearing protic NHC ligands (Scheme 9.3). The C2-deprotonation of N-coordinated imidazoles followed by partial N →C metal transfer gave a mixture of isomeric complexes 7. Complex 8 bearing a protic NHC ligand 8 was obtained from 7 after addition of a proton source (Scheme 9.4a) [18a]. A similar reactivity was observed for the Re I complex 9 bearing three N-coordinated imidazole ligands. On C2- deprotonation, one of these reacted under N →C metal shift to give 10 that on protonation yielded the complex 11 bearing 116 COMPLEXES WITH PROTIC N-HETEROCYCLIC CARBENE (NR,NH-NHC) LIGANDS Ru NH
NH 3 NH 3 NH 3 N NH 3 N H H HCl / H 2 O Ru NH 3 NH 3 NH 3 NH 3 OH 2 2+ N N H H R R R R Ru NH 3 NH 3 NH 3 NH 3 Cl 2+ N N H H R R Zn / Hg
O 2 CO Ru NH 3 NH 3 NH 3 NH 3 C N N H H R R O
4 6 R = H, Me 5 (Cl)
2 (Cl)
2 Scheme 9.3 Acid-promoted tautomerization of N-coordinated azoles to yield complexes with protic NHC ligands. [Mn] N
H R' [Mn] + N N R R R R 7 [Mn]
N N R' R (a)
(b) R R' NH 4 PF 6 [Mn]
N N R R R' H 8 + [Mn] = Mn I OC C OC O + Re N N H R OTf 9 C OC OC O N N N N R R H H KN(SiMe
3 ) 2 R = Me Re
C OC
O N N N N R R H H Re OTf
11 C OC OC O N N N N R R H H N N R N N R H N N HOTf
KOt Bu Scheme 9.4 Tautomerization of N-coordinated azoles by (a) C2-deprotonation followed by (b) metal shift and N-protonation. a protic NHC ligand (Scheme 9.4b) [18b]. N-Alkylation of the anionic NHC ligand in 10 to give a classical NR,NR-NHC ligand is also possible. The tautomerization reactions of N-coordinated azoles described earlier is limited to selected metal centers. A different reaction leading to complexes with protic NHC ligands starts the ubiquitous N,N -dialkylated azolium salts. Such salts can be deprotonated to yield the free NHCs that on reaction with suitable metal precursors yield NHC complexes. Alternatively, azolium salts react directly with suitable metal precursors in the presence of internal or external bases to yield NHC complexes [15]. If the azolium salt and subsequently the coordinated NHC are functionalized with removable N-substituents, protic NHC ligand can be generated at the metal template by the removal of an N-substituent from the coordinated NHC. Such a reaction was discovered in 2006 for complex 12, which was obtained by coordination of a free NHC to Ru II with concurrent C −H activation at one of the methyl groups of an N-substituent (Scheme 9.5). Heating of 12 leads to cleavage of an exocyclic N −C bond and, among other reaction products, to the formation of the NHC complex 13 bearing a protic NHC and its tautomer 14 (Scheme 9.5) [22].
COMPLEXES WITH NR,NH- AND NH,NH-NHCS BY TEMPLATE-CONTROLLED CYCLIZATION REACTIONS 117 Ru PPh 3 PPh
3 H C Cl PPh
3 + N N Ru PPh 3 H C CH 2 PPh 3 N N Ru PPh
3 CO Cl H PPh
3 + N N H O O Ru PPh 3 CO Cl H PPh
3 N N H + + [RuH 2 (PPh 3 ) 2 (CO)] 12 13 14 Scheme 9.5 Cleavage of an exocyclic N −C bond in 12 to give the complex with a protic NHC ligand. The accidental removal of an N-acetonyl substituent during silica gel chromatography has been observed for complex 15 giving complex 16 with a protic NHC ligand (Scheme 9.6a) [23a]. This type of accidental removal of an N-wingtip substituent has also been described for complexes bearing N-silyl-substituted NHCs [23b]. Crabtree and coworkers described an acyl N-protection strategy for the directed synthesis of complexes bearing protic NHCs (Scheme 9.6b). The N-benzoyl-substituted benzimidazolium salt 17 reacts on deprotonation with [IrCl(COD)] 2 to
3 gave the salt 19 that undergoes N-deprotection with methanol to yield complex 20 with a protic NHC ligand [24]. A similar deprotection strategy leading to NH,NH-NHC complexes of gold(I) has recently been described. Reaction of imidazole with triethyl orthoformate gave the N-substituted imidazole 21 that on C-lithiation and reaction with [AuCl(THT)] yields salt 22 (see also Scheme 9.2a). The subsequent reaction of 22 with CF 3 SO
H and HCl proceeded under stepwise protonation of the free nitrogen atom followed by the removal of the N-protection groups with the formation of complexes 23 and finally 24 bearing two NH,NH-NHC ligands (Scheme 9.6c) [25].
The majority of NHCs and their metal complexes, including those bearing protic NHC ligands described earlier, have been obtained from cyclic azole or azolium derivatives. Alternatively, NHC ligands can be generated at a suitable metal template from coordinated isocyanide ligands. For example, Ugi four-component cyclization [26a] (cyano complexes, isocyanides, aldehydes, and amine hydrochlorides) and the Ugi three-component cyclization reactions [26b] (cyano complexes, isocyanides, and carbonyl compounds) have been used successfully for the template synthesis of complexes bearing protic NHC ligands. Generally, isocyanides can be attacked by proton bases HX (X = OR, RNH) in a nucleophilic reaction that leads to acylic heterocarbene complexes [27, 28] The use of functionalized isocyanides containing both the isocyanide group and the nucleophile in the same molecule gives access to complexes with heterocyclic carbene ligands via an 1,2-addition across the C
≡N triple bond [29]. A number of research groups have been active in the development of nucleophile-functionalized isocyanides, which could subsequently be cyclized in metal template-controlled reactions. Initially, the functionalized isocyanides were prepared in template syntheses at metal centers. Beck et al. [30], Fehlhammer et al. [31], and Michelin et al. [32] describe the reactions of complexes bearing isocyanic acid or isocyanide ligands with epoxides or aziridine. These reactions led to β-functionalized ethyl isocyanides that subsequently cyclized at the metal template to yield cyclic heterocarbenes (Scheme 9.7, method a). Complexes bearing β-nucleophile substituted isocyanide ligands can also be obtained by the reaction of ethylenediamine or ethanolamine with coordinated trichloromethyl isocyanide [33] or dichlorocarbene ligands [34] followed by cyclization of the intermediately formed β-functionalized isocyanide ligand (Scheme 9.7, method b). Some additional templates syntheses of complexes containing protic cyclic heterocarbene ligands using isocyanide or carbonyl complexes as the starting material have been described. Special attention deserve the reactions of carbonyl [35] or isocyanide complexes [36] with 2-bromoethyl amine leading to complexes with protic oxazolidin-2-ylidene or imidazolidin- 2-ylidene ligands, respectively (Scheme 9.8a). The nucleophilic attack of the diacetal-protected amino acetaldehyde at a diisocyanide palladium complex followed by an acid-catalyzed cyclization reaction resulted in the formation of the complex bearing an NH,NR-substituted imidazolin-2-ylidene ligand (Scheme 9.8b) [37a]. The synthesis of tetracarbene complexes 118 COMPLEXES WITH PROTIC N-HETEROCYCLIC CARBENE (NR,NH-NHC) LIGANDS Ir Cl
(a) (b)
(c) N N n Bu n Bu O silica gel chromatography CH 2 Cl 2 , acetone Ir Cl Cl N N H 15 16 N N MeOOC MeOOC
O H BF 4 [IrCl(cod)] 2 LiHMDS
N N MeOOC MeOOC O Ir Cl N N MeOOC MeOOC
O Ir Ph 3 P PPh 3 KPF
6 N N MeOOC MeOOC
H Ir Ph 3 P
18 19 20 N N H N N H 1. n BuLi 2. [AuCl(THT)] N N H Au H H 24 HC(OEt)
3 TsOH
N N EtO OEt N N N N Au 22 EtO
OEt EtO
OEt MeOH
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