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METAL HYDRIDES IN HYDROGEN BONDING
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8.2 METAL HYDRIDES IN HYDROGEN BONDING 8.2.1 Hydrides as Proton Acceptors In full accord with the hydrogen-bond definition [18], dihydrogen bonds feature short contacts H δ− · · ·H
δ+ (less than the sum of the van der Waals radii, 2.4 ˚ A) and close to the linear H δ− · · ·H
δ+ –X arrangement of atoms [13, 19]. As a result of the interacting bonds, both M–H and H–X are slightly elongated (by 0.003–0.030 ˚ A). The deviations of proton from Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
98 WEAK INTERACTIONS AND M–H BOND ACTIVATION the hydrogen bond axis (line between the heavy atom in X–H and the hydridic H in a transition-metal hydride complex) are usually within the 10–12 ◦ range, which is regular for classical intermolecular hydrogen bonds [20]. According to our recent computational analysis [21], those stronger than 10–12 ◦ are caused by simultaneous interaction with a core metal atom. The M · · ·H
δ+ –X interaction becomes stronger for 5d transition metals and this increase can be evoked to explain the difference in the spectroscopic and chemical behavior of 5d and 3d/4d metal hydrides [22–24]. The hydrogen-bond formation involves the transfer of electron density from the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the base to an empty σ *
A–H orbital of the acid that has its main coefficient on the “protic” hydrogen. In the case of dihydrogen bonds, the donor orbital is of σ M–H nature, mainly centered on the hydridic hydrogen (Fig. 8.1) [21, 25]. In “hydridic” hydrides bearing electron-donating ligands, the metal-bound hydrogen has a small negative charge and more than 45% share in the total electron density on σ M–H orbital (Table 8.1). The presence of electron-accepting ligands obviously diminishes the electron density on the “hydride” ligand (see below, Table 8.2) and makes such a hydride complex prone to be a proton donor. Interestingly, in none of the hydrides studied the σ M–H orbital is HOMO, but nevertheless this orbital is involved in dihydrogen bonding. The electron density redistribution caused by dihydrogen bond formation leads to an increase of the negative charge on the “hydride” hydrogen (Table 8.1). Accordingly the M–H bond polarization, pol(M–H), determined here as the electron density at the metal-bound hydrogen relative to the total electron density on σ M–H
, changes to higher values. The corresponding value for the O–H bond changes to lower numbers, reflecting an increase of positive charge on the “protic” hydrogen (Table 8.1). 8.2.2 Hydrides as Proton Donors When neutral hydrides act as proton donors in hydrogen bonds, the changes of M–H bond properties are similar to those of H–X bond of “regular” proton donors (O–H, N–H, C–H donors), as mentioned above. For neutral transition-metal hydrides, we have shown the formation of such hydrogen bonds on the example of CpMH(CO) 3 complexes (2, M = Mo (a), W (b)) interacting with organic bases (amines, R 3 PO; Fig. 8.2a) [15, 16]. The formation energy of these M–H δ+ · · ·Y
bonds is very low and, accordingly, the changes induced by the hydrogen bonding are quite small (Table 8.2). The formation of the M–H δ+ · · ·Y hydrogen bond involves the transfer of electron density from the HOMO orbital of the base to an empty σ *
M–H orbital of the hydride complex as in the case of any classical hydrogen bond. The induced change of the M–H bond polarization ( pol(M–H), Table 8.2) is similar to that observed for C–H · · ·Y bonds of halomethanes with nitrogen bases [26] but occurs at notably lower energies of n Y to σ * M–H
donation [16]. This easier polarization facilitates (a)
(b) Figure 8.1 Typical
σ (M–H) molecular orbitals on the example of (a) Cp*MH(dppe) (HOMO-5) and (b) CpMH(CO) 3 (HOMO-4) complexes (as isosurface at 0.08958). METAL HYDRIDES IN HYDROGEN BONDING 99 TABLE 8.1 Selected Structural and Electronic Parameters Calculated (DFT/B3PW91) for Dihydrogen-Bonded Complexes of Cp*MH(dppe) Hydrides with CF 3 CH 2 OH (1, M = Fe (a), Ru (b), Os (c)) 1a 1b 1c E ZPVE
, kcal/mol −9.1
−9.2 −9.5
r(M–H), ˚ A 0 .011 0 .011 0 .006
r(O–H), ˚ A 0 .022 0 .021 0 .022
r(H ···H
O ), ˚
A 1 .612 1 .735
1 .795
r(M ···H
O ), ˚
A 2 .561 2 .573
2 .571
∠H M ···H–O, deg 156 .8 147 .6 144
.7 ∠M···H–O, deg 168 .5
.4 171
.6 q(H M ) a −0.067
−0.060 −0.044
q(M) a 0 .027 0 .003 −0.014 q(H O ) a 0 .008 0 .012
0 .013
pol(M–H), % b , c 9 .1 3 .4 2 .6 pol(O–H), % b ,
−2.8 −2.6
−2.7 a Change of the NBO charge at the given atom. b The bond polarization (pol(Z–H), in percentage on H) determined as electron density at the heavy atom bound hydrogen relative to the total electron density on σ Z–H , Z = M or O; pol(Z–H) = pol(Z–H) complex −pol(Z–H) initial . c pol(M–H) is 47.1 for FeH, 47.6 for RuH, and 48.7 for OsH in free Cp*MH(dppe) complexes. d pol(O–H) = 24.9 for free CF 3 CH 2 OH.
TABLE 8.2 Selected Structural and Electronic Parameters Calculated (DFT/M05) for Complexes of CpMH(CO) 3 Hydrides (2, M = Mo (a), W (b)) with Me 3 N and BH 3 a
3 N
3 2b/Me 3 N 2b/BH 3
ZPVE , kcal/mol −4.8 −5.65
−4.6 −6.16
r(M–H), ˚ A 0 .012 0 .081 0 .005
0 .072
r(H ···Y
b ), ˚
A 2 .329 1 .500
2 .431
1 .498
∠MH···Y b , deg 177 .7 142 .6 170
.2 139
.6 q(M) +0.051
+0.137 +0.036
+0.160 q(H) +0.053
−0.122 +0.058
−0.114 q(Y) −0.006
−0.008 pol(M–H), % c −4.4
7 .2 −2.8 9 .4 a See footnote to Table 8.1. b Y = N or B. c pol(M–H) is 40.5 for MoH and 42.1 for WH in free CpMH(CO) 3 complexes. (a) (b)
Figure 8.2 Optimized (DFT/M05) structures of complexes formed by CpMH(CO) 3 and Me
3 N (a) and BH 3 (b).
100 WEAK INTERACTIONS AND M–H BOND ACTIVATION 0.006
0.010
0.037 (a)
(b) Figure 8.3 (a) Optimized structure of dihydrogen-bonded adduct between ( tBu PCP)Ni(H) and CpWH(CO) 3 with selected bond lengths ( ˚ A). Hydrogen atoms of the tBu PCP ligand are omitted for clarity. (b) Fragment of molecular graph of the system. Electron density at the (3, −1) bond critical point and bond order (as a delocalization index [21], in bold italic) are reported for W–H· · ·H–Ni and C–H· · ·H–Ni contacts. Color codes: • -bond critical points, • -ring critical points. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) the M δ−
δ+ heterolytic splitting. The deprotonation of these hydrides occurs readily, placing the CpMH(CO) 3 complexes between medium-strength OH proton donors on the pK a (CH 3 CN) scale (compare pK a (CH
3 CN) of 13.9 and 16.1 in CH 3 CN
3 and CpWH(CO) 3 , respectively, to, for example, 20.55 of (CF 3 ) 3 COH, 16.66 of 2,4-dinitrophenol, or 11.00 of 2,4,6-trinitrophenol [27]). The easy polarization of the M–H bond and rather low electron density possessed by hydride ligand in free CpMH(CO) 3 complexes allow these compounds to exhibit three types of reactivity depending on the partner reagent. These complexes are classical examples of one compound being a source of H + , H − , and H
• [28–30]. We computed the adducts of CpMH(CO) 3 hydrides with BH 3 as a mild Lewis acid (Fig. 8.2, Table 8.2). This interaction is based on the σ M–H
to LP*
B donation and thus leads to the increase of electron density on the metal-bound hydrogen making it more “hydridic.” In a sense, it is similar to dihydrogen bonding and shows that the change of M–H bond polarization occurs at the stage of formation of the intermolecular adduct. Despite the rather low energy of these interactions (hydrogen bonding or Lewis acid–base interaction), they activate the participating M–H (and O–H) bonds and induce them to take part in a subsequent reaction. The most challenging task in this area of research was to detect a hydrogen bond between the two hydride complexes, one of which would be a proton donor and the other a proton acceptor. The experimental evidence for the formation of such dihydrogen-bonded adduct came only recently, provided by the spectroscopic study of the interaction between the nickel(II) pincer hydride ( tBu PCP)Ni(H) [ tBu PCP
= 2,6-C 6 H 3 (CH
2 P t Bu 2 ) 2 ] and the already-mentioned tungsten complex CpWH(CO) 3 (2b) [31]. The computational (density functional theory (DFT)/M06) analysis revealed interesting peculiarities of this complex. Two H δ− · · ·H δ+ contacts were found between NiH, both WH and CH of the Cp ring (Fig. 8.3). AIM (atom-in-molecule) analysis gave two (3, −1) critical points. The interaction energies calculated for each H· · ·H contact were –0. 7 and −1.5 kcal/mol, respectively, in agreement with the shorter distance to C–H than to W–H found. 8.3 HYDROGEN BONDING AND PROTON TRANSFER Hydrogen bonds of different types not only accompany the proton transfer reactions but also influence the kinetics and thermodynamics of different reaction steps. In the following paragraphs, we illustrate this idea by highlighting the peculiarities of M–H bond behavior. 8.3.1 Hydrides as Proton Acceptors When a transition metal bears electron-rich ligands, the metal-bound hydrogen has a partial negative charge and acts as a proton-accepting site in dihydrogen bonding. The reaction with acids does not stop at this stage and proton transfer yields usually the nonclassical η 2
2 complexes (Scheme 8.1). Numerous experimental data support the participation of a second proton-donor molecule in the proton transfer step [22, 32, 33].
HYDROGEN BONDING AND PROTON TRANSFER 101 M–H + H–X M–H···H–X [M(
η 2 -H 2 )] + ···[XHX] − [M( η 2 -H 2 )] + // [XHX] − Molecular complex Hydrogen bonded ion pair Solvent separated ion pair
The observation of an equilibrium between molecular and ionic hydrogen-bonded complexes evidences the two minima on the potential energy surface [34]. We have not only observed such equilibria spectroscopically but have also been able to obtain the thermodynamic parameters of each step. These data show that the stronger the hydrogen bond, the more favorable the proton transfer (Fig. 8.4) [33]. The proton-accepting ability in hydrogen bonding, E j , [13, 35, 36] determined for transition-metal hydrides varies in the same range as that of classical oxygen- or nitrogen-containing bases [34]. Also, the proton affinity PA (taken as − H 298.15K for the reaction B + H + → BH + ) of hydrides studied so far (243–267 kcal/mol) is larger than that of the reference organic compounds (198–230 kcal/mol) [34]. Probably for this reason, the proton transfer is easier for hydride systems than for classical organic bases. This could be due to the better delocalization of the acquired positive charge in the presence of the transition metal in comparison to traditional organic bases. And this is true not only for the gas phase, as suggested by quantum chemical calculations, but in solution as well. For example, no proton transfer is observed from p-nitrophenol to Et 3
HB = −9.3 kcal/mol) [37] or from CF 3 CH
OH to pyridine in CCl 4 ( H HB = −9.3 kcal/mol), whereas it does occur in case of transition-metal hydrides even at weaker hydrogen bond formation enthalpy [33] as, for example, for the CpRuH(CO)(PCy 3 )/(CF
3 ) 3 COH pair in hexane with H DHB
= −7.3 kcal/mol [38]. There is also a relationship between the dihydrogen bond strength and the activation free energy of proton transfer. The latter decreases with the increase of – H DHB
(Fig. 8.5). This experimental trend is also predicted by theoretical calculations, which show the ultimate disappearance of the dihydrogen bond minimum and a spontaneous proton transfer with the increase of dihydrogen bond strength [38–40]. The calculations show also that the proton transfer transition state features the already formed H–H bond (H–H distance ca. 0.9 ˚ A), with the H 2 unit being simultaneously bonded to both the [M] + unit and the anion (M–H and H–O distances are ca. 1.6–1.9 and 1.3–1.5 ˚ A, respectively) [23, 32, 41]. Such a highly ordered transition state explains the substantial negative activation entropy ( S ‡ PT from −15 to −40 cal/mol/K) determined experimentally for the proton transfer, yielding η 2
2 complexes [33, 42, 38]. 0 2
6 8 10 12 5.5
6.0 6.5
7.0 −ΔH DHB −Δ
PT 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Correlation between the enthalpies (- H, kcal/mol) of dihydrogen bond formation (DHB) and proton transfer (PT). Data obtained in CH 2 Cl
for the reaction of (CF 3 ) 3 COH with (triphos)Re(CO) 2 H (1) [52], (CF 3 ) 2 CHOH with Cp*FeH(dppe) (3) [42], (triphos)Ru(CO)H 2 (4) [53], Cp*RuH(dppe) (5) [44], RuH 2 (dppm)
2 (6) [54], and CF 3 CH
OH with Cp*MoH 3 (dppe) (2) [23], (PP 3 )OsH
2 (7) [47]. Reproduced from Reference 33 by permission of the John Wiley and Sons. 102 WEAK INTERACTIONS AND M–H BOND ACTIVATION 10.0 15.0
20.0 25.0
30.0 3 5 7 9 −ΔH o DHB
Δ G # 298 K 1 2 4 5 3 7 8 11 9 10 1 2 Figure 8.5 Correlation between the dihydrogen bond formation enthalpies ( − H ◦ DHB , kcal/mol) and the activation free energies ( G ‡ 298
, kcal/mol) in hexane (1, rhombi and triangles 1–7), dichloromethane (2, open squares 8–11). Data for the reaction of WH(CO)
2 (NO)(PEt
3 ) 2 with PhOH (1), (CF 3 ) 2 CHOH (2), (CF 3 )
COH (3), WH(CO) 2 (NO)(PMe 3 ) 2 with PhOH (4), (CF 3 ) 2 CHOH (5) [55]; CpRuH(CO)(PCy 3 ) with (CF 3 ) 3 COH (7) [38]; Cp*FeH(dppe) with CF 3 CH 2 OH (8), (CF 3 )
CHOH (9), (CF 3 ) 3 COH (10) [32, 42]; Cp*MoH 3
3 CH 2 OH (11) [23]. Reproduced from Reference 33 by permission of the John Wiley and Sons. 8.3.2 Hydrides as Proton Acceptors: Cooperative Effect The hydrides reactivity depends, of course, on the metal atom and the ligand environment. But additional weak interactions are similarly important and can be used to fine-tune the M–H bond properties. Thus, in an excess of acid, the coordination of a second molecule of the proton donor yields M–H δ− · · ·H
δ+ –X · · ·H δ+ –X associates. That entails strengthening of dihydrogen bond because of the cooperative effect and further M–H bond activation. According to our DFT calculations for Cp*MoH(CO)(PMe 3 )
interacting with trifluoroacetic acid (Fig. 8.6), a cooperativity effect was found for the formation of dihydrogen-bonded complex with (CF 3 COOH)
2 ,
coop = E(1·2HOR) − E(1·HOR) − E((HOR) 2 ) is
−2.2 kcal/mol [43]. The formation of the dihydrogen bond with the first CF 3 COOH molecule lengthens the Mo–H bond by 0.037 ˚ A. The binding of second CF 3 COOH molecule entails the additional stretching by 0.020 ˚ A, whereas the dihydrogen bond itself becomes shorter (1.244 vs 1.365 ˚ A) (Fig. 8.6). The cooperative enhancement of the dihydrogen bond strength in the complex of Cp*MoH(CO)(PMe 3 )
with two CF 3 COOH molecules also reduces the proton transfer barrier from 8.5 to only 1.9 kcal/mol (Fig. 8.6) [43]. Similar effects have been calculated, for example, for (PP 3 )RuH 2 interacting with alcohols (see below) [25]. In low-polarity solvents, the products of proton transfer exist as contact ion pairs stabilized by the hydrogen bond between the η
-H 2 cation and the anion. Experimental data show that the anion is in its homoconjugated form, [ROHOR] − [23,
42, 44]. This is because the basicity of [ROHOR] − is reduced relative to that of simple RO – , which prevents pulling out a proton from the cationic dihydrogen complex and allows it to be a stable species. In agreement with the experimental data, the DFT calculations often fail to optimize the [M( η 2
2 )][OR] ion pair [23, 42, 38, 39, 45]. And even when they are successful, as in the case of [Cp*(CO)(PMe 3 ) 2 Mo(
η 2 -H 2 )] + [OCOCF 3 ] − , they show clearly the thermodynamic preference of [M( η
-H 2 )] + [ROHOR]
− ion pairs (Fig. 8.6) [43]. 8.3.3 Hydrides as Proton Donors Deprotonation of CpMH(CO) 3 hydrides occurs readily even in nonpolar media (hexane) [16]. This is due to the low proton transfer barrier, which is related to the easy M–H bond activation and the thermodynamic favorability of the ion pair (Fig. 8.7), which is backed up by good localization of negative charge in [CpM(CO) 3 ]
. According to DFT calculations, the proton transfer barrier height is less than 8 kcal/mol [16] and decreases from tungsten to molybdenum and from pyridine to trimethylamine, in agreement with the increase of their acid/base strength and M–H · · ·Y bond energy. Hydrogen-bond and ion-pair formation become more favorable in the same row (Fig. 8.7). The spectroscopic study shows that the reaction is immediate at the timescale of conventional infrared (IR) measurements even at low temperatures [15, 16]. This is in HYDROGEN BONDING AND PROTON TRANSFER 103 0.0
−27.4 −19.7
−11.2 −21.6
−4.7 −2.7
Figure 8.6 Optimized (DFT M05) geometries and energy profile ( E, kcal/mol) calculated for protonation of Cp*MoH(CO)(PMe 3 )
by CF 3 COOH (one and two molecules) in gas phase. Selected bond lengths are reported ( ˚ A). Hydrogen atoms of CH 3 groups are removed for transparency. Data from Reference 43. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) Δ
, kcal/mol −12
−9 −6 −3 0 3 6 2b/Py 2a/Py 2b/Me 3 N 2a/Me 3 N Reactants H-bond Ion pair
TS Figure 8.7 Energy profile for CpMH(CO) 3 (M
CPCM). The energies in solvent have been obtained by adding the contribution of the free energy of solvation to the gas-phase potential energy. According to the data from Reference 16. agreement with the activation parameters reported for the proton transfer from the hydrides 2 to various anilines ( H ‡ 5–7 kcal/mol, S ‡ ca. –30 cal/mol/K) [46]. As the result of an easier polarization and heterolytic splitting of M–H bonds in comparison to C–H, the proton transfer from W–H of 2b to ( tBu PCP)NiH occurs despite the stronger Ni–H interaction with the C–H proton. The reaction between these two hydrides yields ionic species, which were detected experimentally (Scheme 8.2) [31]. Similar reactivity was determined for the ( tBu PCP)PdH/2b pair. According to the DFT calculations, the reaction intermediate 3 has a very unusual structure, in which the elongated H 2 molecule connects the two metal centers in a μ,η 1 : 1
end-on mode (Fig. 8.8). 104 WEAK INTERACTIONS AND M–H BOND ACTIVATION M H
P t Bu 2 M P t Bu 2 H H W OC OC OC P t Bu 2 M P t Bu 2 H H W OC OC OC P t Bu 2 M P t Bu 2 W OC OC O C H H W H 3 Scheme 8.2 Figure 8.8 Optimized structure of the kinetic product of proton transfer from CpWH(CO) 3 to (
tBu PCP)NiH. Selected bond lengths are reported ( ˚ A). Hydrogen atoms of the tBu PCP ligand are omitted for clarity. TABLE 8.3 Experimentally Determined Activation Parameters for the Reaction of ( tBu PCP)MH (M = Ni, Pd) with CpWH(CO) 3 in THF Ni Pd G ‡ (298 K), kcal/mol 21 .0 17 .0 H ‡ , kcal/mol 10 .6 7 .2 S ‡ , cal/mol/K −34 −32
Complex 3 is stable only at low temperatures and evolves H 2 above 230 K yielding [CpW(CO) 2 ( μ-κ,C:κ,O- CO) · · ·M(
tBu PCP)] as a thermodynamic reaction product [31]. The proton transfer is the rate-determining step of the reaction, which is faster for the more basic Pd analog. The activation parameters determined (Table 8.3) indicate a highly ordered transition state and are similar to those found for the formation of η 2
2 complexes (Fig. 8.5) [33] despite the difference in the transition state structure.
The peculiarity of CpMH(CO) 3 hydrides as proton donors is a lack of possibility to form conjugated systems XH · · ·MH· · ·Base (analogous to those in Scheme 8.1), which would strengthen hydrogen-bonded complex and promote proton transfer. This is because of high d-electron lone-pair delocalization (according to the natural bond orbital (NBO) analysis) [16]. Thus, the position of the tautomeric equilibrium M–H · · ·Y· · ·M − · · · + HY (central part on Scheme 8.3) could be affected only by media polarity. Indeed, the experimental data show that the substantial polarity increase on going from hexane to acetonitrile shifts overall equilibrium to the right, toward the proton transfer product [16]. However, the proton transfer equilibrium constants and the reaction free energies are lower in solvents of medium polarity (CH 2 Cl 2 , tetrahydrofuran (THF)) than in hexane. The key to understanding this phenomenon lies in specific solute–solvent interactions. The CH · · ·OC bonds between CpMH(CO) 3 and the solvent molecules (denoted as SH in Scheme 8.3) are evidently present even in those solvents that are traditionally considered as proton acceptors (THF, CH 3 CN). In turn, the hydrogen-bond- donating CH 2 Cl 2 interacts not only with the carbonyl ligands of CpMH(CO) 3 but also with bases. According to our ACTIVATION OF H 2 IN THE METAL COORDINATION SPHERE 105 MH + MH···Y Y M − ···
+ HY M − //
+ HY MH···S Y···HS SH···M
− YH + ···S S: SH SH S:
λ, nm 250
300 350
400 450
500 550
A 0.0
0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8
1.0 1.2
c b a Figure 8.9 UV–visible spectra of [Cp*WH 4 (dppe)]
+ BF 4 − (c = 0.001 M) interacting with equimolar amount of [Bu 4 N] + [4-NO
2 -C 6 H 4 - O] − in CH 2 Cl 2 (a) and THF (b) at 200 K. Spectrum of [Bu 4 N] + [4-NO
2 -C 6 H 4 -O] − (c) in THF is given for comparison. Path length 0.4 mm. experimental and computational results, both CH · · ·Base and M–H· · ·S interactions (S = N of acetonitrile or O of THF) have energy comparable to that of the M–H · · ·Base hydrogen bond. Thus, these competitive interactions lower the hydride or base activity in proton transfer reaction and in this way affect the position of the proton transfer equilibrium (Scheme 8.3). The pronounced specific solvent effects are observed for proton transfer to “basic” transition-metal hydrides as well. In this case, the effect originates mainly from the different specific solvation of the proton donor. Thus, the interaction of proton donors with aprotic (proton accepting) solvents hampers the proton transfer, shifting the equilibrium (Scheme 8.1) to the left [22, 25, 47, 48]. For example, mixing the [Cp*WH 4 (dppe)]
+ BF 4 − salt with p-nitrophenolate yields the predominant formation of the hydrogen-bonded ion pair [Cp*WH 4 (dppe)] + [OAr]
− in CH
2 Cl 2 with the band at 400 nm in UV–visible spectra (Fig. 8.9a), whereas the equilibrium appears to be completely shifted to the left in THF where the envelop of the overlapping bands of “free” p-nitrophenol (317 nm) and [Cp*WH 3 (dppe)] (ca. 410 nm) was observed (Fig. 8.9b) because of the highly favored specific solvation of the p-nitrophenol (hydrogen-bonding p-nitrophenol THF) [22]. At comparable polarity, protic solvents are not innocent as well; they shift the proton transfer equilibrium to the right. According to our model experiment, the addition of just 8 vol% of CH 3 OH instead of CH 3 CN to THF causes a substantial change in the amount hydrogen-bonded ion pairs [[(PP 3 )RuH( η 2 -H 2 )] + · · ·[ArOHOAr] – ] formed as the result of proton transfer from p-nitrophenyl-aza-phenol with [(PP 3 )RuH 2 ] (compare the intensities of the ion-pair band at 525–540 nm, Fig. 8.10) [25]. These solvents have similar polarity ( CH3CN
= 35.94; CH3OH
= 32.66 at 298 K [49]), and thus their addition produces similar increase of the media polarity. This increase alone cannot account for the spectral changes observed and has to be considered together with the bonding properties of the two solvents. Indeed, the computational study [25] has shown that the molecule of protic solvent, CH 3 OH or even CH 2 Cl 2 , can take part in the formation of M–H δ− · · · H δ+ –X · · ·H δ+ –X associates. The cooperative effect in such hydrogen-bonded complexes ( E coop ) follows the order of proton donor abilities: H 2
> CH 3 OH > CH 2 Cl 2 (Fig. 8.11). This cooperative enhancement of the dihydrogen bond promotes the proton transfer, which becomes more favorable in the same order.
Nonclassical η 2
2 complexes can be obtained not only by proton transfer to a transition-metal hydride but also by H 2 addition to an unsaturated metal complex [50]. Though less commonly used for the preparation of η 2 -H 2 complexes, this 106 WEAK INTERACTIONS AND M–H BOND ACTIVATION λ, nm 300
400 500
600 700
A 0.0
0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8
1.0 THF (
ε 10.1) +CH
3 CN (
ε 13.1) +CH
3 OH (
ε 12.8) Figure 8.10 UV–visible spectra of the equimolar mixture of p-nitrophenyl-aza-phenol with [(PP 3 )RuH
2 ] in the presence of 8 vol% of CH 3
3 CN in THF. c = 0.001 M, 230 K. The spectrum in pure THF is given for reference. The resulting media polarity (in parenthesis) was calculated according to the formula = (c THF THF
+ c i i )/100, where c i is the relative concentration of the ith component (c THF
+ c i = 100% v/v), and i is its dielectric permittivity at 230 K [25]. CH 3
CH 3 OH·CH 3 OH CH 3 OH·CH
2 Cl 2 CH 3 OH·H 2 O H···H RuH( η 2 -H 2 ) + −3.3 −6.0
−6.2 CF 3 OH CF 3 OH·CH 2 Cl 2 −7.2
Figure 8.11 Schematic energy profiles calculated (DFT/B3LYP) for proton transfer to (PP 3 )RuH
2 . Numbers indicate cooperative effect (in kcal/mol) in dihydrogen bonding with HOR ·HX associates relative to dihydrogen bond with HOR. From the data in Reference 25. process is an important step in many catalytic reactions involving H 2 . The metal-bound H 2 molecule is stretched relative to the free one and thus activated for further transitions. It can undergo homolytic cleavage to yield a classical dihydride or to give a proton to the anion or an external base (substrate) and thus undergo heterolytic cleavage yielding the metal hydride (Scheme 8.4). The balance between these two ways of reactivity is determined not only by the properties of the metal and its ligands but also by the strength of the cation–anion interaction. When it is too strong, deprotonation takes place, the η 2
2 complex being converted into dihydrogen-bonded one. When the cation–anion interaction is not strong enough, it allows [M( η 2 -H 2 )] → [M(H) 2 ] transformation. Our calculations [23] on [CpMoH 4 (dpe)] + [ROHOR]
− as models of [Cp*MoH 4 (dppe)]
+ [ROHOR]
− have shown that this process does not require significant movement of the anion when the [M( η 2 -H 2 )] · · ·OR contact is already loose as proved by the evolution of the H
· · ·O distance (from 2.106 ˚A in the dihydrogen structure to 2.493 ˚A in the tetrahydride) (Fig. 8.12). In these ion pairs, the dihydrogen– dihydride → tetrahydride rearrangement takes place easily and is reversible. The energy barrier is only 1.8 kcal/mol in the gas phase and 1.3 kcal/mol in CH 2 Cl
, with the tetrahydride ion pair being only 1.5 kcal/mol more stable than the dihydrogen– dihydride complex in the gas phase (–1.7 kcal/mol in CH 2 Cl
). The most striking example on how the cation– anion interaction determines the structure of cationic dihydride and how it can be fine-tuned by additional weak interactions is provided by [Cp*MoH 2 (CO)(PMe 3 ) 2 ] + [51]. When obtained by ACTIVATION OF H 2 IN THE METAL COORDINATION SPHERE 107 Homolytic cleavage Heterolytic cleavage M H X H M H H + X' H X − M H H + X − δ− δ+ Scheme 8.4 −2.0
−1.0 0.0
1.0 2.0
1 1.2
1.4 1.6
1.8 d H–H , Å
E , kcal/mol Figure 8.12 Optimized (DFT/B3LYP) geometries of the [CpMo( η 2
2 )H 2 (dpe)] + [ROHOR] − and [CpMo(H) 4 (dpe)]
+ [ROHOR]
− ion
pairs (RO = (CF
3 ) 2 CHO) and potential energy curve for their interconversion. Plain curves and squares: in the gas phase; dashed lines and triangles: in dichloromethane solution. The H–H length of the coordinated dihydrogen has been taken as the reaction coordinate. low-temperature protonation of Cp*MoH(CO)(PMe 3 ) 2 by HBF
4 ·Et
2 O in THF, this cation exists as the η 2
2 complex,
whereas in CH 2 Cl 2 the formation of classical dihydride is observed. DFT calculations show that it is the specific solvation of BF 4
2 homolytic cleavage. Interestingly, both solvents (THF and CH 2 Cl 2 ) act as CH-proton donors in binding with BF 4 (Fig. 8.13). The stronger proton donor CH 2 Cl 2 gives stronger adducts with BF 4 , which in turn weakens the MoH 2 · · ·FBF
3 interaction and allows H 2 cleavage
in this solvent. ΔG solv , kcal/mol −6.2 −11.0
(a) (b)
Figure 8.13 Optimized (DFT/M05) geometries of the BF 4 −
2 Cl 2 and their formation energies in the corresponding solvent. 108 WEAK INTERACTIONS AND M–H BOND ACTIVATION 8.5 CONCLUSIONS Hydrogen bonds formed by transition-metal hydrides, M–H δ− · · ·
δ+ HX or M–H δ+ · · ·Y, entail the lengthening of the participating bonds and their additional polarization (repolarization) due to the electron density redistribution. It leads to the increase of positive charge on “protic” hydrogen and of negative charge on the “hydridic” one. Thus, the dihydrogen bond formation allows activation of two Z–H bonds in one step. These changes (and thus the degree of the M–H bond activation) can be induced through the formation of M–H δ− · · ·
δ+ HX · · · δ+ HX associates, in which H–X could be even a solvent molecule. Such cooperative enhancement of the dihydrogen bond promotes the proton transfer, decreasing the energy barrier of η 2
2 formation and making it more favorable thermodynamically. Activation of H 2 molecule in the metal coordination sphere depends mostly on the properties of the organometallic fragment but can be further governed by weak solute–solvent interactions. Finally, the hydrogen-bonded complex M–H δ− · · ·
δ+ H–M formed by two hydride complexes of opposite polarity precedes the proton transfer but leads to the unusual product featuring the μ,η
1 : 1 end-on coordination of the H 2 molecule between the two metal centers. Overall, this knowledge opens the possibility for tuning the properties of hydride and dihydrogen complexes and for governing their reactivity pattern. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This work was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (projects 11-03-01210, 12-03-33018) and by the Division of Chemistry and Material Sciences of RAS.
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