Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
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- INVOLVEMENT OF AN ACETATO LIGAND IN THE REDUCTIVE ELIMINATION STEP OF THE RHODIUM-CATALYZED METHANOL CARBONYLATION
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20 INVOLVEMENT OF AN ACETATO LIGAND IN THE REDUCTIVE ELIMINATION STEP OF THE RHODIUM-CATALYZED METHANOL CARBONYLATION Duc Hanh Nguyen ∗ , Nicolas Lassauque, Thomas Davin, Laurent Maron, Carole Le Berre, Philippe Serp, and Philippe Kalck ∗
20.1 INTRODUCTION Acetic acid is the most important commodity chemical produced by homogeneous catalysis, with world annual production of 9 million tons and a regular growth of approximately 2%. It is used in the manufacture of vinyl acetate for the production of textile fibers, adhesives, and paints or directly employed as solvent in the synthesis of terephthalic acid and its esters as solvents, and funds direct applications in the pharmaceutical and even in the food industry. Another major application concerns the manufacture of acetic anhydride by high temperature dehydration into ketene that is further condensed with acetic acid, whose main application is to synthesize cellulose acetate. Two-thirds of the acetic acid production arises from the carbonylation of methanol, catalyzed by a late transition metal complex. Thus, acetic acid represents the second aliphatic intermediate, after methanol, which is issued from the carbon monoxide/hydrogen chemistry. Since the CO/H 2 couple (syngas) can be generated from various sources, methanol constitutes an abundant raw material for acetic acid, so that a highly selective catalytic process to obtain it by carbonylation (Eq. 20.1) is presumably today the most elegant and convenient synthetic pathway to produce it at low cost [1]. CH 3 OH + CO → CH 3 COOH
(20.1) Following the intense work on the carbonylation reaction during the 1920s by BASF and British Celanese [1], Reppe and his research group discovered that cobalt diiodide operating at 680 bar and 250 ◦ C catalyzes this reaction [2, 3]. But it was necessary to solve harsh corrosion problems, until 1950, when highly resistant molybdenum/nickel alloys (whose trademark is Hastelloy ©) were discovered and commercialized [1]. The process developed by BASF in 1960 was not selective as the yield in acetic acid was 90% based on methanol and 70% based on CO [4] due to the large amounts of CO 2 coproduced by the water-gas shift (WGS) reaction (Eq. 20.2). CO + H 2 O → CO 2 + H
2 (20.2)
It appeared clearly that an iodo promoter was required to activate methanol and to generate iodomethane (Eq. 20.3), which will further react with the [Co(H)(CO) 4 ] species, or more probably the H[Co(CO) 4 ] acidic species in the presence of Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
260 ACETATO LIGAND IN THE REDUCTIVE ELIMINATION STEP OF THE RHODIUM-CATALYZED METHANOL CARBONYLATION water, to form the methyl-cobalt intermediate [Co(CH 3 )(CO) 4 ] according to Equation 20.4. CH 3
+ HI → CH 3 I + H 2 O (20.3) H[Co
(CO) 4 ] + CH 3 I → [Co(CH 3 )(CO) 4 ] + HI (20.4) Next, the migratory CO insertion, which is considered as the rate-determining step (rds), followed by coordination of a CO ligand gives the acetyl-cobalt complex [Co(COCH 3 )(CO) 4 ] (Eq. 20.5) [5, 6]. [Co (CH
3 )(CO)
4 ] + CO → [Co(COCH 3 )(CO)
4 ] rds
(20.5) Finally, hydrolysis of this latter complex produces acetic acid and regenerates H[Co(CO) 4 ] (Eq. 20.6). In addition, a nucleophilic attack of a I − ion on the acetyl carbon atom has also been proposed to provide CH 3 COI, which is immediately hydrolyzed to acetic acid [7]. [Co
(COCH 3 )(CO) 4 ] + H 2 O → H[Co(CO) 4 ] + CH 3 COOH
(20.6) In the mid-1960s, Paulik and Roth at Monsanto Co discovered that rhodium and an iodide promoter were more efficient than cobalt, with selectivities of 99% and 85%, with regard to methanol and CO, respectively. Moreover, the reaction is operated under significantly milder conditions such as 40–50 bar pressure and around 190 ◦ C [8]. Even though rhodium was 1000 times more costly than cobalt at this time, Monsanto decided to develop the rhodium-based catalyst system mainly for the selectivity concerns, and thus for the reduction of the process cost induced by the acetic acid purification, even if it was necessary to maintain a 14% w/w level of water in the reactor to keep the stability of the rhodium catalyst. In addition, Paulik et al. [9] demonstrated that iridium can also catalyze the carbonylation of methanol although at a lower rate. However, it is noteworthy that the catalytic system is more stable, especially in the low partial pressure zones of the industrial unit. The Monsanto rhodium catalyst system has been the subject of numerous reviews [6, 10–17], including a very recent one by Haynes [18]. At high water content, typically more than 8% w/w, the overall rate is first order in both the rhodium complex and the methyl iodide reactant and zero order in both methanol and CO reactants. The catalytic cycle, which is usually adopted is shown in Fig. 20.1. The first step is the CH 3 I oxidative addition reaction to the [RhI 2 (CO)
2 ] − active species, which has been determined as rate determining. I Rh
CO I − I Rh CO CO I − CH 3 I I Rh CO CO − I I CH 3 I Rh CO CO − I I CH 3 OC CH 3 COI CH 3 COOH CH 3 I CH 3 OH HI H 2 O CO rds Figure 20.1 General catalytic cycle for Rh-catalyzed methanol carbonylation reaction. INTRODUCTION 261 (a)
(b) (c)
I2 O2 O12 O11 C11
C12 Ir1
I12 I11
I1 I3 I2 C11 O11
O12 C12
Ir1 C1a
C41 Rh1
C40 O1 I1 Figure 20.2 X-Ray crystal structures of (a) [RhI 2 (CO)
2 ] − , (b) [IrI 2 (CO) 2 ] − , and (c) [IrI 3 (CH 3 )(CO)
2 ] − . Part (a) is adapted from Reference 23. Parts (b) and (c) are adapted from Reference 24. The activation parameters determined by Forster [6] are
‡ = 63.6 kJ/mol and S ‡ = −116 J/(mol K) and this large negative entropy of activation is consistent with the nucleophilic attack of the rhodium center on the carbon atom of CH
3 I to form the [RhI 2 (CH
3 )(CO)
2 ] neutral intermediate, which further coordinates the I − ligand. However, below 8% water content, it has been proposed that the rate-determining step becomes the reductive elimination of acetyl iodide [19]. In another context, Cole-Hamilton and coworkers [20] have observed that when using the highly σ -donating C 5 Me 4 (CH
2 ) 2 PEt 2 ligand, the rhodium center is so electron rich that the reductive elimination becomes the rate-determining step, resulting in accumulation of the acetyl complex in the medium. In comparison with the [IrI 2 (CO) 2 ] − complex, the oxidative addition reaction is 100 times faster than with [RhI 2 (CO)
2 ] − resulting from the higher nucleophilicity of the iridium center [21, 22]. In order to understand the difference in behavior between the iridium and rhodium chemistry, we prepared these two complexes with bis(triphenylphosphoranylidene)ammonium as countercation [23, 24]. The two metal centers are in a square- planar environment (Fig. 20.2a and b) and in CH 2 Cl
solutions, the two ν CO frequencies are 2058 and 1987 for Rh, and 2046 and 1967 cm −1 for Ir, respectively, which reflects a larger retrodonation to the CO ligands of the iridium metal center due to its more diffuse orbitals. Thus, the nucleophilic attack of the iridium center on the methyl carbon atom occurs very easily, followed by iodide coordination, and the methyl-iridium complex 2[IrI 3 (CH
3 )(CO)
2 ] − can be isolated as the resting state (Fig. 20.2c). In order to promote the migratory insertion of the CO ligand, which becomes the rds, it is necessary to remove an iodo ligand, for increasing the electrophilic character of the CO carbon atom subject to the nucleophilic attack of the methyl group. BP Chemicals patented the use of various promoters able to act as the iodo-abstracting reagent. In particular, [RuI 2 (CO) 3 ] [25, 26] can efficiently react with [IrI 3 (CH
3 )(CO)
2 ] − under CO to give [RuI 3 (CO) 3 ] − and [IrI 2 (CH 3 )(CO)
3 ]. The addition of the ruthenium promoter allows the formation of the neutral acetyl species [IrI 2 (COCH 3 )(CO)
3 ] about 700 times much faster than the transformation of [IrI 3 (CH 3 )(CO)
2 ] − into [IrI 3 (COCH 3 )(CO)
2 ] − in the absence of Ru [27]. Although the situation is more complex in the case of iridium as a neutral catalytic pathway can operate in parallel to the anionic one, the CO migratory insertion from the [IrI 3 (CH 3 )(CO)
2 ] - intermediate is about 10 −5 slower in nonprotic solvents than that observed for rhodium [19, 20]. Operating in methanol has a dramatic accelerating effect, presumably because the dissociation of an iodo ligand is solvent assisted. The promoting role of [RuI 2 (CO)
3 ] and [PtI 2 (CO)]
2 [28, 29] has been studied in detail [18]. At present, the Cativa ™ process developed by BP Chemicals operates with Ir and Ru at 5% w/w water and the high concentrations of the resulting methyl acetate provides high reaction rates [18]. On the other hand, the rhodium catalytic system with LiI stabilizer/promoter, allows operation at around 5% w/w, and the process has been developed by Celanese [15, 30]. Here, the significant amount of methyl acetate reduces the concentration of HI, which is well known to lead to the formation of the [RhI 4 (CO)
2 ] − species. This complex is inactive during carbonylation but responsible for the WGS reaction (Eq. 20.2). The role of LiI is not only to stabilize the Li[RhI 2 (CO)
2 ] catalytic species but also to allow the two reactions in Equations 20.7 and 20.8. CH 3 OAc + LiI → CH 3 I
(20.7) LiOAc
+ HI → LiI + AcOH (20.8)
The Celanese researchers [31, 32] have proposed that two dianionic rhodium species can be formed under high concentrations of LiI that accelerate the oxidative addition rate of CH 3 I: (i) Li 2 [RhI
3 (CO)
2 ], whose participation has been considered in a theoretical investigation [33] and (ii) Li 2 [RhI 2 (OAc)(CO) 2 ].
262 ACETATO LIGAND IN THE REDUCTIVE ELIMINATION STEP OF THE RHODIUM-CATALYZED METHANOL CARBONYLATION We were interested in the coordination involvement of the acetate ligand under reaction conditions of high concentrations of LiI and low water contents. Our spectroscopic data and density functional theory (DFT) calculations lead to the conclusion that this acetate ligand plays a deciding role in the reductive elimination reaction, in which the last step is in fact the formation of acetic anhydride from [RhI 2 (CH
3 CO)(OAc)(CO) 2 ]
with the regeneration of the active [RhI 2 (CO) 2 ] − species. 20.2 NMR AND INFRARED HIGH PRESSURE STUDIES AND DFT CALCULATIONS The complex cis-[PPN][RhI 2 (CO)
2 ] 1a has been prepared in high yield by reaction under a CO atmosphere of RhI 3
◦ C to produce cis-[NH 2 Me
][RhI 2 (CO) 2 ] and then by metathesis with [bis(triphenylphosphoranylidene)ammonium]chloride ([PPN]Cl). As expected, the infrared (IR) spectra display two ν CO stretching bands of similar intensity, characteristic of two CO ligands in mutual cis positions in a square-planar environment. No interaction between the anion [RhI 2 (CO)
2 ] − and its cation counterpart [PPN] + was detected in the solid state. The analogous compounds cis-[4-RC 5 H 4 NMe][RhI
2 (CO)
2 ] (R
=H or Et) have been reported previously by Haynes [34]. Complex 1 reacts under nitrogen with neat CH 3 I to provide, presumably through the intermediate [PPN][RhI 3 (CH
3 )(CO)
2 ]
2 [Rh(
μ-I)I 2 (COMe)(CO)] 2 acetyl complex 3, whose the centrosymmetric isomer has been characterized by an X-ray crystal structure (Fig. 20.3a). Under 1 atm of CO, the two iodo bridges are cleaved to give the mer,trans- [PPN][RhI 3 (COMe)(CO) 2 ] 4 complex with the two CO ligands being in the apical positions of an octahedron, in which the equatorial plane contains the acetyl ligand and the three iodo atoms (Fig. 20.3b). In anhydrous dichloromethane and under 15 bar of CO, 4 reacts slowly to yield 1 and CH 3 COI, which reacts immediately with water to form acetic acid at 25 ◦ C (Fig. 20.4). As it has been proposed that the rate-determining step of the reaction may change as a function of the water content in the medium, we performed HP-NMR experiments (Fig. 20.5) under conditions close to the one used for the methanol carbonylation process. In these experiments, we introduced methyl iodide directly as it is the real reactant provided by reaction of HI with methanol. The 13
◦ C and 15 bar 13 CO, reveal clearly that at low water content the resting state is indeed the acetyl complex 4. Between 0% and 5% water, IR monitoring of the reductive elimination reaction to go from 4 to 1 does not show any influence of the water concentration on the kinetics of this reaction. DFT calculations performed for the direct attack of water on the acetyl group of 4 to produce 1, acetic acid, and HI show a high energy barrier of 44 kcal/mol. Under such conditions, this mechanism appears kinetically unlikely. On the other hand, the classically admitted almost thermoneutral reductive elimination of CH 3 COI from 4 corresponds to an energy barrier of 26 kcal/mol (Fig. 20.6). Thus, below 5% water, it seems reasonable to propose that this latter mechanism operates. However, we have considered the eventual role of water in generating acetate ions in the medium. Conductivity measurements performed on acetic acid–water mixtures (Fig. 20.7) show indeed an increase of the conductivity above 5% water content. As the generated acetate ions might be involved in the reductive elimination step, we first calculated the direct attack of an acetate anion on the acetyl group of 4 to produce 1 and acetic anhydride (Fig. 20.8). The approach of the acetate to 4 is significantly endergonic (39 kcal/mol) and the energy barrier of 56 kcal/mol is too high to retain such a mechanism. Furthermore, we explored the substitution on the two different mer,trans-4 and fac,cis-4 isomers of an iodide ligand by an acetate anion to produce [RhI 2 (OAc)(CH
3 CO)(CO)
2 ] − from which reductive elimination gives 1 and acetic anhydride (a)
(b) C3 i C2 i O2 i I1 i C1 i O1 i Rh1
i I2 Rh1 I3 C2 C3 O2 I2 I1 O1 C37
O3 C39
C40 I3 Rh1 C38 O2 I1 C1 O1 I3 i I2 i Figure 20.3 X-Ray crystal structures of (a) [PPN] 2 [Rh(
μ-I)I 2 (COMe)(CO)] 2 and (b) mer,trans-[PPN][RhI 3 (COMe)(CO) 2 ]. Adapted from Reference 23.
NMR AND INFRARED HIGH PRESSURE STUDIES AND DFT CALCULATIONS Download 11.05 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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