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- TABLE 51.1 Formal Electrode Potentials (V vs SCE) of the Redox Processes of the [C 60 ] Cage of [Li@C 60
- TABLE 51.2 Formal Electrode Potentials (V vs SCE) of the Redox Processes of the [C 80 ] 2
- ) in 1,2-Dichlorobenzene Solution
- TABLE 51.4 Differences between the Electrode Potentials of the First Oxidation and the First Reduction of M@C 82
51 ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES TODAY: MORE AND MORE VERSATILE SHIPS IN MULTIFORM BOTTLES—ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF X-RAY CHARACTERIZED MONOMETALLOFULLERENES Fabrizia Fabrizi de Biani and Piero Zanello* Dipartimento di Chimica, dell’Universit`a di Siena, Siena, Italy 51.1 INTRODUCTION Endohedral metallofullerenes (EMFs) constitute a rapidly expanding topic in the scientific background, as proved by the substantially linear increase in the number of papers devoted to such nanoderivatives with respect to their detection in the late 1980s (by the buckminsterfullerene discoverers themselves [1]) (Fig. 51.1). In confirmation of the interest in EMFs, the state of art of their different properties are periodically and intensively reviewed [2]. In fact, starting from the elucidation of their physicochemical fundamentals [2d, g], they have progressively expanded their applications in many areas of chemistry and physics, ranging from advanced materials to medicinal science and from molecular electronics to photovoltaics [3]. As one of the most characteristic features of endohedral fullerenes is the charge transfer from the encaged species to the fullerene cage, it is well conceivable that electrochemistry can experimentally look at the redox properties of EMFS with respect to the corresponding free fullerenes. In this light, we will deal with the electrochemical behavior of those EMFs that have been characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction (which is the most reliable technique able to solve definitely the molecular structure of any type of molecules), neglecting, if unnecessary, the different isomers of the metal cages. We point out that tutorial approaches to the electrochemistry of EMFs [4] and descriptions of the X-ray resolved EMFs [2l, p, q] have recently appeared. Finally, it is useful to remind that there exist three types of EMFs as a function of their inner metal content: mono-EMFs, di-EMFs, and cluster-EMFs. In this picture, we will deal here with monometal endohedral metallofullerenes (MEMFs), which, because of their relative structural simplicity, better help in understanding the physicochemical properties of such new molecules.
In order of increasing dimensions of fullerene cages, the first EMF to be considered is the single-crystal-resolved [Li@C 60 ]
[5a]. As illustrated in Fig. 51.2, it undergoes a sequence of one-electron reductions reminiscent to those of the C 60 parent [5c], even if they are almost rigidly anodically shifted by 0.5–0.7 V. The pertinent redox potentials are compiled in Table 51.1. Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
692 ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES TODAY: MORE AND MORE VERSATILE SHIPS 1992 10
50 70 90 110 1996
2000 Years
2004 2008
2012 Number of papers Figure 51.1 An overall picture of the number of papers annually devoted to EMFS since their discovery (from a personal recognition in the web pages. Conferences proceedings, patents, and dissertations are excluded). ◦ • Updated to September 2012. −2.0
−1.0 0.0
(a) (b)
E (V vs SCE) Figure 51.2 Cyclic voltammetric responses recorded at a platinum electrode in 1,2-dichlorobenzene solution of (a) [Li@C 60 ](PF
6 ) and
(b) C 60 . Scan rate: 0.1 V/s. Adapted from Reference 5b. TABLE 51.1 Formal Electrode Potentials (V vs SCE) of the Redox Processes of the [C 60 ] Cage of [Li@C 60 ] +
Complex [C
] +/0
[C 60 ] 0/ − [C 60 ] −/2− [C 60 ] 2 −/3−
[C 60 ] 3 −/4−
[C 60 ] 4 −/5−
References [Li@C
60 ](SbCl
6 ) +0.18 −0.41 −0.87
−1.26 −1.79
5a [Li@C
60 ](PF
6 ) +0.19 −0.38 −0.84
−1.22 −1.75
5c C 60 +1.72 −0.52
−0.91 −1.35
−1.81 5c The C 60 +/0
oxidation process observed at +1.72 V for free C 60 is absent for [Li@C 60 ] + , being most likely anodically shifted up to be driven out of the accessible experimental window. In fact, UV–vis spectra suggest that the energy differences between the frontier orbitals is almost unchanged by encapsulation of Li + in the C 60 cage [5b], so that both the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) and the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of [Li@C 60 ] + are expected to be stabilized to almost the same extent in comparison with those of C 60 . Interestingly, a similar result has also been obtained by ab initio calculations, which shows that the interaction between the Li + ion and C 60 in the endohedral complex results in a pronounced stabilization of the orbital energy levels without their splitting. This is indicative of the absence of chemical bonding between the lithium ion and the fullerene cage and confirms that the interaction between them is primarily C 80 -MONOMETAL ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES 693 −2.0
−1.0 0.0
E (V vs SCE) Figure 51.3 Cyclic voltammetric response recorded at a platinum electrode in 1,2-dichlorobenzene solution of La@C 72 (C
H 3 Cl 2 ) (X-ray
characterized isomer). Scan rate: 0.02 V/s. Adapted from Reference 7. electrostatic [6]. Thus, the Coulombic effects played by the positive charge inside the C 60 cage in [Li@C 60 ] + make easier the reduction processes with respect to free C 60 [5a,c] and is nicely evocative of the periodical behavior of the electron affinity, which generally increases across a period in the Periodic Table of Elements. 51.3 C 72 -MONOMETAL ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES Let us consider La@C 72 . Given the insolubility of La@C 72 in the common organic solvents, it was extracted from the soot by treatment with 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene affording the dichlorophenyl adduct La@C 72 (C 6 H 3 Cl 2 ). The complex is described as [La] 3 + [C 72 (C 6 H 3 Cl 2 )] 3 − [7]. Of the three isolated isomeric forms, one has been X-ray characterized. As Fig. 51.3 shows, the pertinent cyclic voltammetric response displays four sequential reductions with features of chemical reversibility, which are formally assigned to the sequence [C 72 ]
−/4− [E ◦ = −0.43 V vs SCE (saturated calomel electrode)], [C 72 ] 4 −/5− (E ◦ = −0.76 V), [C 72 ] 5 −/6− (E ◦ = −1.07 V), and [C 72 ] 6 −/7− (E ◦ = −1.33 V) [7]. Not shown in the figure, a couple of irreversible oxidations are present, which are naively assigned to the passage [C 72 ] 3 −/2−/−
. Unfortunately, neither structural nor electrochemical data exist for the pristine La@C 72 .
C 74 -MONOMETAL ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES La@C
74 was X-ray characterized as La@C 74 (C
H 3 Cl 2 ) too [8]. Also in this case, it exists in different isomeric forms, two of which have been X-ray solved. All the derivatives, however, afford poorly defined cyclic and differential pulse voltammetric profiles [8b]. 51.5 C 80 -MONOMETAL ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES A number of M@C 80 lanthanides have been crystallographically characterized (M = La [9], Sm [10], and Yb [11]). Let us start with La@C 80 , which was isolated and X-ray characterized as La@C 80 (C 6 H 3 Cl 2 ). As illustrated in Fig. 51.4, it exhibits three reductions and two oxidations with features of more or less defined chemical reversibility. The reduction processes are assigned to the passages [C 80 ]
−/4− (E ◦ = −0.58 V vs SCE), [C 80 ] 4 −/5− (E ◦ = −0.98 V), and [C 80 ] 5 −/6− (E ◦ = −1.15 V). The oxidation processes are assigned to [C 80 ] 3 −/2−
(E ◦ = +1.02 V), and [C 80 ] 2 −/− (E ◦ = +1.52 V) [9]. Concerned with Sm@C 80 and Yb@C 80 , Fig. 51.5 shows that they afford three well-defined reductions and one oxidation [10, 12]. Premitted that such EMFs are considered as [M] 2 +
80 ] 2 − , the formal electrode potentials of such redox changes are summarized in Table 51.2.
694 ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES TODAY: MORE AND MORE VERSATILE SHIPS −1.0 0.0
+1.0 E (V vs SCE) Figure 51.4 Cyclic voltammetric response recorded at a platinum electrode in 1,2-dichlorobenzene solution of La@C 80 (C
H 3 Cl 2 ). Scan
rate: 0.02 V/s. Adapted from Reference 9. −2.0
−1.0 0.0
+1.0 (a)
(b) E (V vs SCE) Figure 51.5 Cyclic voltammetric responses recorded at a platinum electrode in 1,2-dichlorobenzene solution of (a) Sm@C 80 and
(b) Yb@C 80 . Scan rate: (a) 0.1 V/s and (b) 0.02 V/s. (a) Adapted from Reference 10; (b) adapted from Reference 12. TABLE 51.2 Formal Electrode Potentials (V vs SCE) of the Redox Processes of the [C 80 ] 2 −
of Sm@C 80 and Yb@C 80 in 1,2-Dichlorobenzene Solution Complex
[C 80 ] 2 −/−
[C 80 ] 2 −/3−
[C 80 ] 3 −/4−
[C 80 ] 4 −/5−
References Sm@C
80 +1.00
−0.28 −0.66
−1.19 10 Yb@C 80 +0.91
−0.32 −0.70
−1.30 12
C 82 -MONOMETAL ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES A rich series of M@C 82 EMFs has been X-ray characterized (M = Sc [13], Y [14], La [15a–g], Ce [16], Sm [17], Gd [18], and Dy [19]). We will limit our discussion to those derivatives that display well-defined electrochemical responses. It must be premitted that the oxidation state of the encaged metal in EMFs of Y, La, Ce, Gd, and Dy is commonly assumed as +3,
whereas in EMFs of Sm is +2. In reality, as we will note briefly, in some cases such assumption are controversial. Let us therefore start with EMFs having the inner metal ion in the +3 oxidation state. Crystal structure and electrochemistry of Sc@C 82 (Ad) (Ad = adamantylidene) (in the C 2v (9) isomeric form) have been reported [13]. We report in Table 51.3 the redox potentials of its electron transfer processes together with those of the precursor Sc@C 2v (9)C 82
+3 to the incarcerated metal ion. We note that, in previous studies, the oxidation state +2 has been assigned to Sc@C 82 [20]. The HOMO–LUMO separation for each species, as measured in first approximation by the difference in potential values between the first oxidation and the first reduction, is reported in Table 51.4. C 82 -MONOMETAL ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES 695 TABLE 51.3 Formal Electrode Potentials (V vs SCE) of the Redox Processes of the [C 82 ] 3 −
M@C 82 Derivatives (with Respect to the Corresponding Passages of Free C 82 ) in 1,2-Dichlorobenzene Solution Complex
[C 82 ] 2 −/−
[C 82 ] 3 −/2−
[C 82 ] 3 −/4−
[C 82 ] 4 −/5−
[C 82 ] 5 −/6−
[C 82 ] 6 −/7−
[C 82 ] 7 −/8−
References Sc@C
82 +1.07
a +0.22
−0.72 13 Sc@C 82 (Ad)
+0.66 +0.18
−0.86 13 Y@C 82 +1.64
a +0.67
+0.23 −0.77
−0.77 −1.65
−1.90 21b,c
Y@C 82 (Ad) +0.55 +0.03
−0.94 −1.27
14b Ce@C
82 +1.65
a +0.65
+0.16 −0.84
−0.96 −1.22
−1.68 21c
Ce@C 82 (Ad) +0.59 +0.15
−0.78 −1.17
16 La@C
82 +1.64
a +0.64
+0.15 −0.80
−0.96 −1.69
−1.89 21a,c
La@C 82 (C 6 H 3 Cl 2 ) +1.22 a −0.55 −0.85 −1.37
15e La@C
82 {C 5 (CH 3 ) 5 } +0.59 +0.12 −1.14
−1.65 15d
Gd@C 82 +0.66 +0.18 −0.81
−0.81 21c
Gd@C 82 (Ad) +0.63 +0.05
−0.91 −1.19
18c C 82 −1.04 −1.01
−1.37 21a,c,d
Ad, adamantylidene carbene. a Peak potential for irreversible processes. TABLE 51.4 Differences between the Electrode Potentials of the First Oxidation and the First Reduction of M@C 82 Derivatives (in eV) in 1,2-Dichlorobenzene Solution Complex
0/ + 0/ − E ◦ Sc@C 82 +1.07
a +0.22
≈0.75 Sc@C
82 (Ad)
b +0.66
+0.18 0.48
Y@C 82 +0.67 +0.23 0.44
Y@C 82 (Ad) +0.55 +0.03
0.52 Ce@C
82 +0.65
+0.16 0.49
Ce@C 82 (Ad) +0.59 +0.15
0.44 La@C
82 +0.64
+0.15 0.49
La@C 82 (C 6 H 3 Cl 2 ) +1.22 a −0.55 ≈1.8 La@C
82 {C 5 (CH 3 ) 5 } +0.59 +0.12 0.47
Gd@C 82 +0.66 +0.18 0.48
Gd@C 82 (Ad) +0.63 +0.05
0.58 C 82 a +1.29
−1.12 1.41
Ad, adamantylidene carbene. a From Reference 21a,c,d. Going on, Fig. 51.6 shows the different redox changes exhibited by Y@C 82 (Ad) (Ad = adamantylidene) [14b] with respect to the pristine precursor. Also, in this case, the oxidation state +3 is assigned to the incarcerated metal ion in both the adamantylidene adduct [14b] and the pristine derivative [21b]. Also in this case, previous studies assigned the oxidation state +2 to Y@C 82 [20a].
The pertinent redox potentials are compiled in Tables 51.3 and 51.4. In turn, Fig. 51.7 gives an overall picture of the redox activity of different La@C 82 EMFs.
From Table 51.3, it is evident that the inductive effects of the different exohedral substituents affect appreciably the redox potentials. Passing to the Ce derivatives, it has to be premitted that assignation of the oxidation state of cerium ion in Ce@C 82 has been debated. In fact, preliminary theoretical calculations assigned +2 [23a], whereas experimental studies and more recent theoretical calculations assigned +3 [23b, c]. Figure 51.8 illustrates the cyclic voltammetric behavior of the Ce 3 +
Ce@C 82 (Ad) (Ad = adamantylidene) (isomer 2b in Reference 16). The difference in redox potentials between the pristine derivative and the adamantylidene adduct, Table 51.3, is even more attenuated with respect to the couple Y@C 82 /Y@C 82 (Ad).
696 ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES TODAY: MORE AND MORE VERSATILE SHIPS −2.0 −1.0
0.0 +1.0
+2.0 (a)
(b) E (V vs SCE) Figure 51.6 Comparison between the cyclic voltammetric responses of (a) Y@C 82 and (b) Y@C 82 (Ad). Platinum working electrode. 1,2- Dichlorobenzene solution. Scan rate: (a) 0.02 V/s and (b) not specified. (a) Adapted from Reference 21b,c; (b) adapted from Reference 14b. The optimized structure of Y@C 82 is adapted from Reference 22. −2.0 0.0
+2.0 E (V vs SCE) (a)
(b) (c)
Figure 51.7 Cyclic voltammetric responses recorded at a platinum electrode in 1,2-dichlorobenzene solution of (a) La@C 82 ;
82 (C 6 H 3 Cl 2 ); and (c) La@C 82 C
(CH 3 ) 5 . Scan rate: (a) 0.1 V/s; (b) 0.02 V/s; and (c) 0.05 V/s. (a) Adapted from Reference 21c; (b) adapted from Reference 15e; (c) adapted from Reference 15d.
C 82 -MONOMETAL ENDOHEDRAL METALLOFULLERENES 697 −2.0
−1.0 0.0
+1.0 +2.0
(a) (b)
E (V vs SCE) Figure 51.8 Cyclic voltammetric responses recorded at a platinum electrode in 1,2-dichlorobenzene solution of (a) Ce@C 82 and
(b) Ce@C 82 (Ad). Scan rate 0.02 V/s. (a) Adapted from Reference 21c; (b) adapted from Reference 16. The optimized structure of Ce@C 82 is adapted from Reference 23c. −2.0 −1.0
0.0 +1.0
+2.0 E (V vs SCE) (a)
(b) Figure 51.9 Differential pulse voltammetric profiles recorded at a platinum electrode in 1,2-dichlorobenzene solutions of (a) Gd@C 82 and (b) Gd@C 82 (Ad). Scan rate: 0.02 V/s. (a) Adapted from Reference 21c; (b) adapted from Reference 18a. In confirmation of the chemical reversibility of the first reduction [Ce@C 82 (Ad)] 0/ − , the crystal structure of the monoanion has been solved [16]. Concerned with Gd@C 82 , Fig. 51.9 compares the differential pulse voltammetric profiles of Gd@C 82 and Gd@C
82 (Ad)
(both as C 2v isomers) [18]. The pertinent redox potentials are compiled in Table 51.3. As happens for the related Y@C 82 and Y@C
82 (Ad), also in the case of Gd@C 82 and Gd@C
82 (Ad), the coordination of the exohedral adamantylidene results in an increase in the HOMO–LUMO separation with respect to the pristine derivative. It is noted that in spite of the formally negative charge of the C 82 cage (namely, 3 −) induced by the incarcerated M 3 + ion, the oxidation processes of the EMFs are more difficult and the reduction processes are easier with respect to the corresponding processes of free C 82 3
. Excluding obviously Coulombic effects, this means that the intramolecular metal ion/fullerene electron exchange modifies appreciably the nature of both the HOMO and LUMO levels with respect to those of free C 82 , as on the other hand theoretically proved [21c, 24]. As seen, in general, the presence of exohedral groups do not afford great variations in the HOMO-LUMO gap, but for the C
6 H 3 Cl 2 substituent, which highly stabilizes the [C 82 ] 3 − oxidation state. Figure 51.10 shows the electrochemical behavior of Dy@C 82 derivatives. In particular, it compares the cyclic voltammetric profiles of Dy@C 82 [CCH(COOMe) 2 PPh
3 ] [19] and Dy@C 82 . The pertinent redox potentials are compiled in Table 51.5. Also in this case, the HOMO–LUMO gap of the pristine derivative is not affected by the presence of the exohedral group.
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