Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
45. Santos, L. L.; Mereiter, K.; Paneque, M. Organometallics 2013
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5 FUNCTIONALIZATION OF sp 2 AND sp 3 CARBON CENTERS CATALYZED BY POLYOXOMETALATES AND METALLOPORPHYRINS M ´ario M. Q. Sim ˜oes * , Isabel C. M. S. Santos, Maria Grac¸a P. M. S. Neves, Ana M. V. Cavaleiro, and Jos´e A. S. Cavaleiro Department of Chemistry, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal 5.1 INTRODUCTION The increasing concern with sustainability and the critical need for cleaner technologies have definitively contributed to the development and spreading of catalytic processes, including those related with oxidative transformations. In fact, the conversion of organic compounds into oxygenated derivatives has been widely investigated over the last decades since such products are valuable intermediates for organic synthesis both in the laboratory and in industry [1–7]. One of the main challenges in studying metal complex catalysis is to find novel, efficient systems able to oxidize organic compounds with high selectivity, preferably with cheap, environmentally friendly oxidants such as air or hydrogen peroxide. The latter has a high (47%) active oxygen content and is widely available, and its only by-product is water. Therefore, its chemistry is considered to be environmentally safe. Unfortunately, as with oxygen itself, hydrogen peroxide generally exhibits one of the most complex and minimally controllable oxidation chemistry of all the potentially attractive oxidants [8–10]. In this context, metalloporphyrins, perhaps the best understood and well-studied bio-inspired catalysts, have emerged because of their ability to mimic the catalytic activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes in the presence of numerous oxygen donors [11–15]. The first system capable of mimicking the cytochrome P450 reactions, namely the epoxidation of olefins and the hydroxylation of alkanes, was reported by Groves and collaborators in 1979. That system was based on the Fe(III) complex of the meso-tetraphenylporphyrin [Fe(TPP)Cl] as catalyst and PhIO as the oxygen donor [16]. The use of metalloporphyrins as catalysts in oxidation reactions, such as epoxidation of olefins and hydroxylation of saturated hydrocarbons, has been largely documented during the last decades [17–22]. Many studies were focused on the relation between the porphyrin structure and the corresponding catalytic efficiency. In the past years, the emphasis has been on the promising applications of metalloporphyrins, both under homogeneous and heterogeneous catalytic conditions [23–27]. The oxygenation mechanism operating in cytochrome P450 enzymes and in synthetic metalloporphyrin models has been the aim of numerous studies in the last decades [13, 28, 29]. The oxidation of organic compounds catalyzed by polyoxometalates (POMs) is also a very promising way to obtain value-added products from comparatively cheap starting materials [30–32]. POMs are oxoanions comprising groups 5 and 6 transition metals. Transition-metal-substituted polyoxometalates (TMSPs), that is, POMs of certain families incorporat- ing other d-metals in their structures, have been much studied as oxidative catalysts, frequently with hydrogen peroxide or molecular oxygen as the oxidants [32–35]. Some of these TMSPs have many similarities with metal complexes of macrocyclic ligands as, for example, with metalloporphyrins and related species, since they possess rigid coordination
First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
60 FUNCTIONALIZATION OF SP 2 AND SP
3 CARBON CENTERS CATALYZED BY POLYOXOMETALATES AND METALLOPORPHYRINS (a) (b)
Figure 5.1 General structure of the Keggin-type (a) and sandwich-type (b) transition metal substituted polyoxometalates (TMSPs) used in catalysis; W (green); O (red); heteroatom X (yellow); transition metal M (pink). (See insert for color representation of the figure.) sites surrounding a metal center [34, 36]. Keggin-type TMSPs were even considered as inorganic analogs of metallo- porphyrins, an arguable designation, concerning their reactivity, despite some similarities observed in oxidative catalysis [37–39].
In the past years, our group has been able to build up a promising line of research in the field of catalytic oxidation of organic compounds using almost exclusively hydrogen peroxide as oxidant, both using Keggin-type or sandwich-type TMSPs (Fig. 5.1) [40–52] and Mn(III) or Fe(III) porphyrins (Fig. 5.2) [53–72] in homogeneous or heterogeneous conditions. A brief account of this research is presented here. Unless otherwise stated, all studies were performed with hydrogen peroxide as oxidant and acetonitrile as solvent.
The functionalization studies of sp 3 carbon centers in cycloalkanes and alkylbenzenes (Fig. 5.3) with hydrogen peroxide were carried out in acetonitrile, under homogeneous conditions, using various POMs, namely the tetrabutylammonium (TBA) salts of the heteropolyanions [XW 11 M
2 O )O 39 ] p− (XW 11 M ), where X = P, Si, or B and M = Fe III
or Mn III
and [M 4 (H 2 O ) 2 (PW 9 O 34 ) 2 ] q − , where M = Co II , Mn II , and Fe
III (M 4 (PW 9 ) 2 ). The influence of the substrate/catalyst (S/C) molar ratio, the amount of oxidant added, or the reaction time was investigated. The results obtained for cyclohexane (1), cyclooctane (2), and cyclododecane (3) are summarized in Table 5.1 and the major products observed are presented in Fig. 5.4. For cyclohexane (1), the main product obtained was cyclohexanone
4 (PW 9 ) 2 , which gave cyclohexyl hydroperoxide (1.3) as the main product [42, 45]. Turnover numbers (TONs) higher than 1300 were obtained when higher S/C molar ratios were tested. The results obtained for the oxidation of cyclooctane (2) with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of POMs resemble those obtained for 1 (Table 5.1). However, in this case, all the iron catalysts tested gave higher selectivity for cyclooctyl hydroperoxide (2.3) [42, 43, 45]. Moreover, with the sandwich iron complex, TONs higher than 1900 were reached after 12 h of reaction under the appropriate conditions, without significant alterations on selectivity. When a very high excess of H 2 O 2 was used (H 2 O 2 /sub = 9.8), the rate of oxidation increased and 100% conversion was reached before 12 h of reaction for almost all the POMs. Besides that, high selectivity for 2.3 was observed for H 2 O 2 /sub = 9.8. Nevertheless, the oxidation of 2 into cyclooctanone (2.1) could be obtained with high selectivity (83%) and conversion (92%) using Co 4 (PW 9 ) 2 and H 2 O 2 /sub = 9.8 [42, 43, 45]. The homogeneous catalytic oxidation of cyclododecane (3) was performed using iron-substituted Keggin-type POMs as catalysts, cyclododecanone (3.1) and cyclododecanol (3.2) being the main products obtained [44, 46]. However, cyclododecyl hydroperoxide (3.3) and dodecanal may also be obtained, depending on the reaction conditions. The best results were found for a molar ratio S/C = 667 and H 2 O 2 /sub = 6 (Table 5.1). All the catalysts studied in the oxidation of 3 had identical FUNCTIONALIZATION OF SP 3 CARBON CENTERS UNDER HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 61 N N N N Ar Ar' Ar Ar R M Cl Ar, Ar' = Fe(TPP)Cl M = Fe R = H
Cl Cl Ar, Ar' = Mn(TDCPP)Cl M = Mn
R = H Mn(
β-NO 2 TDCPP)Cl M = Mn R = NO
2 F F F F F Ar, Ar' = Mn(TF
5 PP)Cl
M = Mn R = H
Mn( β-NO 2 TF 5 PP)Cl
M = Mn R = NO
2 N N Ar, Ar' = Mn(TDMImP)Cl M = Mn R = H
N Ar, Ar' = Mn(TPyP)Cl M = Mn
R = H N Ar, Ar' = Mn(TMePyP)Cl M = Mn
R = H N Ar' = Cl Cl Ar = Mn(TrisDCPPyP)Cl M = Mn
R = H N Ar' = Cl Cl Ar = Mn(TrisDCPMePyP)Cl M = Mn
R = H (a)
(b) Figure 5.2 (a) Structures and (b) abbreviations of Mn(III) or Fe(III) porphyrin complexes. behavior, affording 3.1 as the major product after 12 h of reaction. Nevertheless, the hydroperoxide 3.3 can be obtained as the main product if the reaction is ended after 3 h. This system was the first one to afford cyclododecyl hydroperoxide and dodecanal in the catalytic oxidation of cyclododecane [44, 46]. Dodecanal, obtained with identical selectivity with all the three iron catalysts, may be formed via β-cleavage of the intermediate cycloalkyloxy radical, which may be formed via metal-catalyzed decomposition of the corresponding hydroperoxide [73, 74]. Another example of oxidative functionalization of sp 3 carbon centers is the homogeneous liquid phase oxidation of indane (4) and tetralin (5) with hydrogen peroxide catalyzed both by TBA salts of iron(III)-substituted POMs XW 11 Fe, where X = P, Si, or B [48], and by manganese(III) porphyrin complexes [60]. The TMSP systems yield, after 24 h of reaction, the corresponding ketones 4.1 and 5.1 as the major products, accompanied by the benzylic monooxygenation (4.2 and 5.2) and the dioxygenation (4.3 and 5.3) products. The indane oxidation reactions produce also dehydrogenation and hydroperoxidation products, such as 1H-indene (16) and indane hydroperoxide (4.4), respectively. Interestingly, in the oxidation of 5, the important carbon–carbon bond oxidative cleavage of tetralin hydroperoxide (5.4), affording 4-(2- hydroxyphenyl)butanal (5.5), is also observed. These studies demonstrated that iron(III)-substituted Keggin-type POMs are efficient catalysts for indane (4) and tetralin (5) oxidation, with conversion up to 59% for indane and 34% for tetralin, using the environmentally safe hydrogen peroxide as oxidant. The best catalyst was BW 11 Fe, since the conversions obtained after 3 h of reaction were significantly higher, for both substrates, than those registered using the other catalysts. To the best 62 FUNCTIONALIZATION OF SP 2 AND SP
3 CARBON CENTERS CATALYZED BY POLYOXOMETALATES AND METALLOPORPHYRINS (1) n = 1 (2) n = 3 (3) n = 7 n n (4) n = 1 (5) n = 2 R
(7) (8) (9) (10) R = CH(CH 3 )CH 2 CH 3 ; R' = H R' R = CH 3 ; R' = H
R = CH 2 CH 3 ; R' = H
R = CH(CH 3 ) 2 ; R' = H
R = CH(CH 3 ) 2 ; R' = CH 3
OH
OH
2
3
2 CH 3 (12) R = 2-CH 2 CH 3 R R (26) (27) (25) Figure 5.3 Substrates considered in the catalytic oxidation studies. of our knowledge, this is the first study on the use of iron(III)-substituted POMs in the oxidation of these arenes [48]. In the metalloporphyrin system, the oxidation of 4 and 5, catalyzed by Mn(TDCPP)Cl and Mn( β-NO 2
gave rise mainly to benzylic monooxygenation products, namely the corresponding ketones 4.1 and 5.1 and alcohols 4.2 and 5.2 with high substrate conversions, that is 96% or 95% (both after 2 h) for 4 and 97% (after 3 h) or 96% (after 3.5 h) for 5. The reactions catalyzed by Mn (TF
5 PP )Cl and Mn(β-NO 2 TF 5 PP )Cl (Fig. 5.2) showed higher capability to generate dehydrogenated products such as 1H-indene (16) and naphthalene (25) [60]. The oxidation of some alkylbenzenes, namely ethylbenzene (7), cumene (8), p-cymene (9), and s-butylbenzene (10), with aqueous H 2 O
in the presence of iron-substituted POMs was also evaluated [49]. With these systems, the corresponding acetophenones 7.1 and 9.1 and hydroperoxides 7.2, 8.1, 9.2, and 10.1 were the main products obtained. The oxidation of 7 and 8 occurred with maximum conversion of 26% and 37%, respectively, in the presence of PW 11 Fe, both after 24 h of reaction, whereas the maximum conversion of 9 (35%) was found when BW 11 Fe was used. The higher hydroperoxide selectivity was obtained with PW 11 Fe. In the presence of BW 11 Fe, the oxidation of 7 and 8 yielded acetophenone (7.1) in moderate selectivity, while in general p-methylacetophenone (9.1) was the major product obtained in the oxidation of 9. This system based on POMs showed good catalytic efficiency associated with a different product distribution when compared with other systems using hydrogen peroxide and POMs [75–77]. Actually, the conversions obtained with these conditions are higher than those often observed for this kind of substrates, accompanied by an unusual formation of high amounts of the corresponding hydroperoxides, which were detected for the first time in catalysis with POMs [49]. The oxidation of toluene (6), ethylbenzene (7), and cumene (8) with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of Mn(III) porphyrins having electron-withdrawing substituents was also studied [56]. In general, 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone (6.1) was the main toluene oxidation product for catalysts Mn (TF
5 PP )Cl and Mn(β-NO 2 TF 5 PP )Cl. On the other hand, benzoic acid (6.2) was the main toluene oxidation product for Mn(TDCPP)Cl and Mn (β-NO
2 TDCPP
)Cl. Thus, depending on the catalyst, the oxidative attack took place at sp 2 or sp
3 centers, respectively. In the oxidation of 7, acetophenone (7.1) was the major product for all the catalysts tested. The higher conversions for these two substrates 6 and 7 were observed with
FUNCTIONALIZATION OF SP 3 CARBON CENTERS UNDER HOMOGENEOUS CONDITIONS 63 TABLE 5.1 Oxidation of Cycloalkanes (1–3) with H 2 O 2 Catalyzed by Polyoxometalates (POMs) a POM Substrate Conversion, % TON Selectivity, % References -one
-ol -OOH
BW 11 Fe (1) 87 580 49 19 32 42 Co 4 (PW 9 ) 2 83 549 62 38 0 45 Mn 4 (PW 9 ) 2 68 453 59 41 0 45 Fe 4 (PW 9 ) 2 94 b 628 41 6 53 45 BW 11 Fe
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