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Scheme 30.2 being too low. In this case, only the mononuclear [Cu(CF 3 COO)
2 (Hpz)
2 ] complex was produced, which self-assembled into a 1D CP. Another serendipitous event was the use of Hpz-derived amide, instead of any other, because it was found that the trinuclear assembly forms only with pyrazole, while, in absence of an exogenous base, the other azoles yield exclusively mono or dinuclear azole (not azolate) derivatives. In any case, by treating a large number of Cu II carboxylates with Hpz in water or wet alcohols, the dicationic trinuclear triangular Cu II moiety, [Cu 3 ( μ 3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 ] 2 + , whose charge is balanced by two carboxylate ions, was obtained quite easily, according to the reaction Scheme 30.2 [10–14]. Moreover, owing to the large number of coordination modes of COO
− groups (monodentate, chelate, bridging syn–syn or syn–anti, etc.), the carboxylates are responsible for the further self-assembly of the trinuclear fragments (SBUs), leading to the formation of a series of structurally different CPs [11, 12, 14], two of which are sketched in Fig. 30.5. As far as compounds 3a–3c are concerned, again serendipity, or simply accidental events, led to the obtaining of three derivatives having slightly different formulations (and slightly different molecular structures too), as shown in Fig. 30.6. Compounds [Cu 3 ( μ 3 -OH)( μ-pz) 3 (EtCOO) 2 (EtOH)], 3a [11], [Cu 3 (
3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 (EtCOO) 2 (H 2 O)], 3b [12], and [Cu 3 ( μ 3 - OH)( μ-pz)
3 (EtCOO)
2 (H 2 O)] ·H 2 O, 3c [12], were obtained by using almost identical synthetic protocols. The only difference was the use of EtOH as solvent for 3a, while water was employed for 3b and 3c. Moreover, the crystallization of 3a and 3b was performed at circa 20 ◦ C, while 3c crystallized around 12 ◦ C. In spite of these small structural differences, shown in Fig. 30.6, and generated by slightly different reaction conditions, the three derivatives self-assemble in very different networks, as sketched in Fig. 30.7. Compound 3a [11] forms a 1D CP through two different carboxylate bridges, while 3b and 3c [12] generate different supramolecular networks thanks to H-bonds involving carboxylate oxygen, capping OH, and water. Particularly, in the case of 3c, the crystallization water molecules are involved in a series of H-bonds that generate two spiraliform chains with (a) (b)
Figure 30.5 Two CPs based on the trinuclear triangular [Cu 3 (
3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 ] SBU. The 2D CP assembly of compound 1 (a) and the 1D CP from the assembly of [Cu 3 ( μ 3 -OH)( μ-pz) 3 (HCOO) 2 (Hpz)
2 ] ·H 2 O, 2 (b). 412 FROM SERENDIPITY TO POROSITY: SYNTHESIS AND REACTIVITY OF COORDINATION POLYMERS 3a 3b 3c Figure 30.6 Arbitrary views of the molecular structures of compounds 3a–3c. The arrows evidence the slight differences among these compounds, that is, the coordination of EtOH in 3a, while H 2 O coordinates in 3b and 3c. In 3c, a molecule of crystallization water is also present. 3a 3b 3c Figure 30.7 Different self-assembling of compounds 3a–3c generating, from left to right, a 1D CP and two different supramolecular assemblies. opposite chiralities. These data highlight the difficulty to forecast, at least in the field of CPs, the results of the self-assembly of only slightly different SBUs. On the other hand, the trinuclear [Cu 3 (
3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 ] 2 + assembly appears to be quite stable, remaining intact (in moderate to good entity) even when the above mentioned CPs were treated with strong acids, giving rise, in some cases, to CPs where the trinuclear fragments act as SBUs joined together by inorganic anions such as Cl − [15], SO
4 2 − , NO 3 − , or weakly basic organic anions such as triflate or trifluoroacetate [16]. In particular, in the reaction of 1 with aqueous HCl, it was possible to isolate a CP, 10, with permanent, star-shaped channels, as shown in Fig. 30.8, having an effective free pore diameter of circa 4.2 ˚ A and accounting for circa 9% of free volume. (a)
(b) Figure 30.8 Capped-stick view of one star-shaped pore formed by self-assembling of [ {Cu 3
μ 3 -OH)( μ-pz) 3 (Cl) 2 (Hpz)
2 (H 2 O) } 2 {CuCl 2 (Hpz) 2 }], 10, (a) and its crystal packing (b) where the inner surfaces of channels are evidenced in black. TRINUCLEAR TRIANGULAR CU II MOIETIES TO BUILD CPS 413 Figure 30.9 Capped-stick representation of CP 11. H atoms and crystallization water molecules have been omitted for sake of clarity. Balls indicate the connections leading to a 3D CP. The stability of the trinuclear assembly was further exploited in the reaction of compound 2 with 4,4 -bipyridine (bpy), to exchange co-ordinate pyrazole with this ditopic ligand, with the aim to obtain porous coordination polymers (PCPs) thanks to the length and the rigidity of bpy, possibly bridging different trinuclear units. Once again we get one unexpected result. Actually, by treating compound 2 with bpy in MeOH in an almost equimolecular ratio, it was possible to crystallize the CP
{[Cu
3 ( μ 3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 (HCOO) 2 (H 2 O)]-[Cu 3 ( μ 3 -OH)( μ-pz) 3 (HCOO) 2 (H 2 O) 2 ] } 2 ( μ-bpy)]·6H 2 O, which is schematically drawn in Fig. 30.9 [17]. Owing to the large number of formate connections, a 3D CP was obtained. When compound 2 was instead treated with a large excess of bpy, besides Hpz molecules, one formate ion was also removed and exchanged with an OH − ion, likely coming from adventitious water. Two bpy molecules join two trinuclear fragments yielding the hexanuclear complex [ {Cu
3 ( μ 3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 (HCOO)(H 2 O)(
μ-bpy)·(bpy) 2 }(OH) 2 ](bpy), 12, and a crystallization bpy molecule is also present [17]. The latter bpy molecule, evidenced in Fig. 30.10, plays a particular role in the crystal packing of 12. Actually, the hexanuclear compound self-assembles, generating the supramolecular structure shown in Fig. 30.11. Compound 12 does not generate a CP, nevertheless it packs, forming a porous supramolecular network sustained only by noncovalent interactions. The excess of bpy employed in the synthesis very likely plays a templating role in the crystal
Arbitrary capped-stick view of compound 12. The crystallization bpy molecule is evidenced in light gray. 414 FROM SERENDIPITY TO POROSITY: SYNTHESIS AND REACTIVITY OF COORDINATION POLYMERS (a) (b)
Figure 30.11 View down the crystallographic b- (a) and c- (b) axes of the crystal packing of 12. Crystallization bpy molecules are evidenced by a space-fill representation. packing, particularly in the formation of one of the two kinds of channels present in the structure and contributes to the stability of the supramolecular network. Guest bpy molecules almost completely occupy the channels running parallel to the crystallographic b-axis (Fig. 30.11a), while the channels parallel to the c-axis (Fig. 30.11b) are empty, accounting for circa 23% of free volume. Unfortunately, attempts to eliminate guest bpy molecules by heating compound 12 under vacuum lead to the destruction of the crystal structure, thus indicating the importance of bpy in the sustainment of the structure itself. Analogous results were obtained when 12 was dissolved in MeOH and only different, nonporous derivatives crystallized from the solution. On the contrary, if crystals of 12 are soaked in benzene, toluene, or c-hexane, in which they are insoluble, guest bpy molecules pass into solution and some disordered solvent(s) molecules occupy the intersection of the two different channels. In this SC-to-SC process, the structures and cell parameters of soaked crystals remain almost identical to those of 12 [17], as shown in Fig. 30.12, in which the different localizations of the solvent with respect to the previously present guest bpy are evidenced. Interestingly, by treating compound 1, [Cu 3 ( μ 3 -OH)( μ-pz) 3 (MeCOO) 2 (Hpz)], which, besides having acetate instead of formate ions, differs from 2 by ancillary ligands, crystallization water, and by a very different self-assembled CP structure, with a large excess of bpy, a porous compound very similar to 12 was obtained. This compound, containing guest bpy (a) (b)
Figure 30.12 View down the crystallographic b- (a) and c- (b) axes of the crystal packing of 12 after soaking in benzene. Disordered benzene molecules are evidenced by a space-fill representation.
TRINUCLEAR TRIANGULAR CU II MOIETIES TO BUILD CPS 415 and having the crystal structure, packing and cell dimensions almost identical to those of 12 [18], is a good example of “designed assembly,” but only after serendipity has done its work. On the basis of the relevant stability of the trinuclear triangular [Cu 3 (
3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 ] moiety, we decided to test the behavior of copper(II) bicarboxylates in the reaction with pyrazole, by employing ftalate, fumarate, 2-methylfumarate, and succinate ions. Numerous reactions were carried out, in different conditions (room temperature, reflux, solvothermal), with different solvents (water, MeOH, EtOH, DCM), and starting from different reagents (copper bicarboxylates and Hpz or Napz, copper nitrate and bicarboxylic acid and Hpz, copper nitrate and sodium bicarboxylate and Hpz, etc.). From these reactions, the only result that can be confidently stated is that the trinuclear triangular copper pyrazolate assembly is almost always preferred, if the geometry of the bicarboxylate allows it, with respect to the mononuclear copper pyrazole systems. In fact, when the ortho geometry of the ftalate ion hampers the possibility to generate trinuclear triangular pyrazolate assemblies, only 1D or 2D CPs based on the Cu(phthalate)(Hpz) x SBUs have been obtained [19]. On the contrary, by using the other aforementioned rigid and flexible carboxylates, the trinuclear [Cu 3 ( μ 3 -OH)( μ-pz) 3 ] moieties were instead obtained. Nevertheless, their strongly different (self)-assemblies resulted being largely dependent not only on the bicarboxylate employed but also mainly on the reaction conditions, even though some analogies were found. As an example, by reacting copper fumarate and copper 2-methylfumarate with pyrazole in solvothermal conditions, two isomorphous derivatives based on the [Cu 3 (
3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 ] moiety (see Fig. 30.13) were isolated. Moreover, both compounds self-assemble forming 1D waved CPs that further interconnect, generating almost identical 2D sheets [20]. On the other hand, when the reaction of copper 2-methylfumarate was carried out at room temperature, the most abundant product was the mononuclear complex [Cu(MeFum)(Hpz) 2 (H 2 O)]
·(H 2 O) (MeFum = 2-methylfumarate dianion), which self- assembles to yield a 1D CP; we were unable to obtain any crystalline derivative by using copper fumarate in the same conditions [20]. In the reaction involving succinate ions, owing to the very scarce solubility of copper succinate, numerous different procedures were tried, giving different results. Actually, five different derivatives were obtained and we were unable to satisfactorily characterize some other compounds [21]. As a matter of fact, we obtained three different 3D CPs, all based on the [Cu 3 ( μ 3 -OH)( μ-pz) 3 (Suc)] (Suc = succinate dianion) and differing for some small molecules (as water and Hpz) coordinated and/or present in the lattice. On the other hand, these very small differences produce largely different self- assemblies, almost impossible to forecast on the basis of the different reaction conditions, with a behavior analogous to that observed with compounds 3a–3c. Particularly, in one case, a PCP, with channels accounting for a 31% of vacuum space was obtained [21]. Moreover, a 1D CP based on the [Cu(Suc)(Hpz) 2 ] SBU and the mononuclear [Cu(HSuc) 2 (Hpz)
4 ] complex were also obtained [21]. It is noteworthy that most of the obtained trinuclear derivatives are active as catalysts (or catalyst precursors) in the mild peroxidative oxidation of cycloalkanes with H 2 O
in MeCN/water [12–14, 17]. Particularly, the compounds reported in Scheme 30.2, as well as compounds 11 and 12, convert cyclohexane to cyclohexanol and cyclohexanone [22] with total yields ranging from 25% to 35%, values quite relevant for this kind of reaction and comparable to those found by using other valuable catalysts [23]. (a) (b)
Figure 30.13 Trinuclear triangular derivatives [Cu 3 (
3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 (Fum)(Hpz)] (a) and Cu 3 ( μ 3 -OH)(
μ-pz) 3 (MeFum)(Hpz)] (b) (Fum and MeFum = fumarate and 2-methylfumarate dianions, respectively). 416 FROM SERENDIPITY TO POROSITY: SYNTHESIS AND REACTIVITY OF COORDINATION POLYMERS 30.4 Cu(pz) 2 -BASED COORDINATION POLYMERS. A CASE OF “POROSITY WITHOUT PORES” A further relevant serendipitous event that the author encountered during his researches in the Cu II CPs field, happened when the reaction between Cu(MeCOO) 2 ·(H 2 O) and Hpz (Cu : Hpz = 1 : 2) was performed in MeCN, instead of using protic solvents as water or alcohols. The stirred solution immediately became deep blue, followed, in a few seconds, by the formation of a pale-pink solid, while the solution become colorless. The solid analyzed well for [Cu(pz) 2 ] ·H 2 O, 13, and acetic acid was the sole compound present in the mother liquors. Even though only microcrystalline powder formed, it was possible to obtain a molecular structure of this compound by an XRPD determination coupled with ab initio calculations [24]. As shown in Fig. 30.14, a 1D CP is formed, where copper(II) ions are bridged by pz − ions, according to a square planar coordination. Crystallization water molecules are quite far from the square plane (circa 2.9 ´˚ A), forming a very elongated octahedron. The compound crystallizes in the Cmcm space group and the crystal packing reveals that no porosity is present. As usual, we tried to eliminate crystallization water from 13 with the aim to obtain a porous solid and we succeeded in the obtaining the beige anhydrous species [Cu(pz) 2 ], 14, by heating 13 at circa 90 ◦ C under moderate vacuum. Analogously to 13, the structure was determined from the XRPD data [24], revealing that compound 14 is also a linear CP, where Cu II ions maintain the square planar coordination. Its molecular structure is almost identical to that of compound 13, excluding crystallization water, as shown in Fig. 30.15 [25], but it crystallizes in the space group P21/m. Furthermore, compound 14 is not porous but it quickly adsorbs water, even from the air, transforming into 13, and the sorption–desorption process can be repeated indefinitely without any decomposition, in a reversible crystal-to-crystal process.
Taking a look at the space-fill models in Fig. 30.16, it is possible to find that, in compound 13, water is accommodated in cavities that are not present in 14 and which are formed contextually to the water adsorption. This is likely a dynamic process involving the host (14) and the guest (water), whereby both cooperate to create holes where guest molecules can be hosted, that is, a case of “porosity without pores,” as defined by Barbour [26], where the formation of previously absent pores is achieved through the cooperation of 14 with H 2 O to give 13. Moreover, an analogous process is likely effective when 14 is treated with gaseous NH 3 to form the blue species 15, which crystallizes in the same Cmcm space group of 13, with very similar cell parameters. Even though the structure of 15 was not obtained, due to its instability under X-rays [24], in this case also NH 3 can be easily removed by gentle heating under vacuum, yielding 14 quantitatively. The obtaining of 13 is obviously due to the use of MeCN as solvent. It is likely that MeCN is not a suitable solvent to allow or favor the deprotonation of water to OH − , and/or the co-ordinating ability of MeCN, in some way, may hamper the capping μ 3 -OH coordination to Cu ions, which is necessary to generate the trinuclear triangular assembly. On the other hand, Figure 30.14 Arbitrary capped-stick view of the 1D CP 13 showing the square planar coordination of Cu II and the crystallized water (black balls). Figure 30.15 Arbitrary capped-stick view of the 1D CP 14 showing the square planar coordination of Cu II .
CU(PZ) 2 -BASED COORDINATION POLYMERS. A CASE OF “POROSITY WITHOUT PORES” 417 (a)
(b) (c)
Figure 30.16 Space-fill representation of 14 (a) and 13 (b). H atoms are not indicated and crystallized water molecules are indicated as red balls. In (c), the water molecules have been fictionally removed, evidencing the space they occupy in 13. (See insert for color
Hpz is instead deprotonated and pz − ions bridges Cu II ions, allowing the formation of the 1D CP based on the [Cu(pz) 2 ]
In these events, serendipity seems not to play a relevant role, as it is expected that by changing the solvent, something different can happen. In this case, the role of serendipity was in the use of a “new,” just-opened bottle of MeCN. In fact, when, after some weeks, we tried to repeat the reaction we were unable to observe the quantitative precipitation of the pale-pink compound 13, obtaining instead a blue–gray solid in which acetate ions were present in variable extent and a pale-blue solution. After several attempts, we realized that, in that time, MeCN had adsorbed atmospheric water, and we ascertained that if the water is more than 1%, it promotes the partial formation of the known trinuclear assembly, together with variable quantities of 13. It is noteworthy, that the water present in Cu(MeCOO) 2 ·(H 2 O) is completely employed in the formation of 13. This is just what is needed! In conclusion, if the author had used an “old” MeCN bottle, containing more than 1% of water (which is quite possible, as we normally work in air, often using hydrated salts—such as copper acetate—thus, we do not take any particular care about the dryness of the solvents) very likely, we would not have been able to synthesize and characterize compounds 13–15, whose samples are shown in Fig. 30.17. Also the formation of 13 is quite general in these conditions and it was obtained in MeCN by starting from copper formate, copper propionate, or copper butyrate [27], provided that no more than 1% of water is present, according to Scheme 30.3. 13 14
Figure 30.17 Samples of compounds 13–15. (See insert for color representation of the figure.) Cu(RCOO) 2 + 2 Hpz [Cu( μ-pz) 2 ].H 2 O + 2 RCOOH MeCN, H 2
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