Chemistry and catalysis advances in organometallic chemistry and catalysis
Download 11.05 Mb. Pdf ko'rish
|
- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- DEDICATION
- Scheme 31.1
13 Scheme 30.3 418 FROM SERENDIPITY TO POROSITY: SYNTHESIS AND REACTIVITY OF COORDINATION POLYMERS Incidentally, compound 13 was afterward serendipitously (once again) obtained, through a completely different solvothermal procedure, as well-formed crystals [28], whose SC-XRD determination confirmed and improved the XRPD- based structure. Moreover, despite its ascertained stability, compound 2 transforms into compound 13 when treated in air with a large excess of Hpz by stirring it in a toluene suspension or, alternatively, by milling with a pestle in a mortar [28]. 30.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS In the CPs research field, the so-called solvothermal synthetic approach is largely used for some important reasons. As a matter of fact, numerous important CPs are insoluble in most solvents (due to their polymeric structure), and this fact makes it difficult to obtain them in the form of crystals of suitable size and quality for an SC-XRD structural determination. In order to try to overcome this problem (the products precipitate quickly as microcrystalline powders or, when dissolved for recrystallization, very often they lose, at least partly, the polymeric character) the solvothermal technique is employed. The reagents and the solvent are introduced into a sealed container (normally a Teflon-lined Parr digestor) and heated above the solvent boiling point. In these conditions, owing to the overheating, the high pressure, the low viscosity, the increased solubility, and other not always well-defined reasons, it is possible that well-formed crystals are obtained. On the other hand, these reactors are like “black boxes” and one will discover what happened only when the cooled reactor is opened. If serendipity has worked, everything would be all right, otherwise one would to try again, with different conditions. In the last years, some research groups have implemented the so-called “high throughput synthetic methods” in a sort of combinatorial syntheses, by using, as an example, a series of mini-autoclaves that are differently charged and heated at the same temperature. The resulting compounds are screened by means of automatic or semiautomatic devices in order to detect the “good products” that will then be studied in depth. This method can save a lot of time, but requires the investment of a lot of money, mainly for the apparatus. Yet, in any case, this is again not a designed synthesis, but a just a way to force serendipity to work more rapidly. In conclusion, in the author’s opinion there is still a lot of work to be done before it will be possible to forecast the structure or even the properties of CPs on the simple bases of the structure of the ligands, the kind of metal, and the reaction conditions employed. Besides, the author is not sure that this will be possible in every situation. So, let serendipity work and let us take advantage of it!
The University of Padova (Italy) (PRAT 2009 CPDA099411) and the MURST (Italy) (PRIN 2006038447_003) are acknowledged for funding. Prof. Claudio Pettinari (University of Camerino, Italy), Prof. Magda Monari (University of Bologna, Italy), Prof. Norberto Masciocchi (University of Insubria, Italy), Prof. Armando J.L. Pombeiro (Instituto Superior T´ecnico, Lisbon, Portugal), Prof. Maurizio Casarin, Dr. Federica Garau, Dr. Arianna Lanza (University of Padova, Italy) have been largely engaged in the above described researches and are greatly acknowledged not only for their work, but mainly for their friendship, that made working with them a true pleasure.
I would like to dedicate this work to the memory of my late wife, Guia (1954– 2010). REFERENCES 1. In the fields of observation chance favors only the prepared mind. Pasteur L. Lecture at the University of Lille (Dec 7, 1854). 2. Winpenny, R. E. P. J. Chem. Soc. Dalton Trans. 2002, 1. 3. Yaghi et al. recently proposed to distinguish MOFs from CPs in terms of the bond strength between nodes and linkers. See Tranchemontagne, D. J.; Mendoza-Cort`es, J. L.; O’Keeffe, M.; Yaghi, O. M. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009, 38 , 1257. 4. For recent accounts on CPs see: (a) the Special Issue of Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009, 38 , 1201; (b) the Thematic Issue on Metal-Organic Frameworks of Chem. Rev. 2012, 112 , 673. 5. Eddaudi, M.; Moler, D. B.; Li, H.; Chen, B.; Reineke, T. M.; O’Keeffe, M.; Yaghi, O. M. Acc. Chem. Res. 2001, 34 , 319. REFERENCES 419 6. (a) Kitagawa, S.; Kondo, M. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 1998, 71 , 1739. (b) Kitagawa, S.; Uemura, K. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2005, 34 , 109. 7. Eddaudi, M.; Kim, J.; Rosi, M.; Vodak, D.; Watcher, J.; O’Keeffe, M.; Yaghi, O. M. Science 2002, 295 , 469. 8. (a) Pettinari, C.; Pettinari, R. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2005, 249 , 525; (b) Pettinari, C.; Pettinari, R. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2005, 249 , 663; (c) Pettinari, C. Scorpionates II: Chelating Borate Ligands; Imperial College Press: London, 2008. 9. Garau, F.; Monari, M.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Venzo, A. CrystEngCom, 2010, 12 , 1217. 10. Casarin, M.; Corvaja, C.; Di Nicola, C.; Falcomer, D.; Franco, L.; Monari, M.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Piccinelli, F.; Tagliatesta, P. Inorg. Chem. 2004, 43 , 5865. 11. Casarin, M.; Corvaja, C.; Di Nicola, C.; Falcomer, D.; Franco, L.; Monari, M.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Piccinelli, F. Inorg. Chem.
12. Di Nicola, C.; Karabach, Y. Y.; Kirillov, A. M.; Monari, M.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Pombeiro, A. J. L. Inorg. Chem. 2007, 46 , 221. 13. Di Nicola, C.; Garau, F.; Karabach, Y. Y.; Martins, L. M. D. R. S.; Monari, M.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Pombeiro, A. J. L. Eur. J. Inorg. Chem. 2009, 48 , 666. 14. Di Nicola, C.; Garau, F.; Karabach, Y. Y.; Martins, L. M. D. R. S.; Monari, M.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Pombeiro, A. J. L. Dalton Trans. 2009, 4928. 15. Casarin, M.; Cingolani, A.; Di Nicola, C.; Falcomer, D.; Monari, M.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C. Cryst. Growth Des. 2007, 4 , 676. 16. Di Nicola, C.; Garau, F.; Gazzano, M.; Monari, M.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Pettinari, R. Cryst. Growth Des. 2010, 10 , 3120. 17. Di Nicola, C.; Garau, F.; Gazzano, M.; Guedes da Silva, M. F. C.; Lanza, A.; Monari, M.; Nestola, F.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Pombeiro, A. J. L. Cryst. Growth Des. 2012, 12 , 2890. 18. Monari, M.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C. Unpublished results. 19. Garau, F.; Lanza, A.; Pandolfo, L.; Monari, M.; Pettinari, C.; Zorzi, A. XL Congresso Associazione Italiana di cristallografia (AIC) Siena, Italy, Sept 19–22, 2011; pp 134; P13. 20. Di Nicola, C.; Forlin, E.; Garau, F.; Lanza, A.; Natile, M. M.; Nestola, F.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C. J. Organomet. Chem. 2012,
21. Di Nicola, C.; Forlin, E.; Garau, F.; Gazzano, M.; Lanza, A.; Monari, M.; Nestola, F.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Zorzi, A.; Zorzi, F. Cryst. Growth Des. 2013, 13 , 126. 22. In some cases cyclopentane was also tested, with analogous results. 23. (a) Kirillov, A. M.; Kopylovich, M. N.; Kirillova, M. V.; Haukka, M.; Guedes da Silva, M. F. C.; Pombeiro, A. J. L. Angew. Chem.
M. F. C.; Pombeiro, A. J. L. Adv. Synth. Catal. 2006, 348 , 159; (c) Trettenhahn, G.; Nagl, M.; Neuwirth, N.; Arion, V. B.; Jary, W.; Pochlauer, P.; Schmid, W. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2006, 45 , 2794; (d) Velusamy, S.; Punniyamurthy, T. Tetrahedron Lett. 2003, 44 , 8955. (e) Shul’pin, G. B.; Gradinaru, J.; Kozlov, Y. N. Org. Biomol. Chem. 2003, 1 , 3611; (f) Raja, R.; Ratnasamy, P. Catal. Lett. 1997, 48 , 1. 24. Cingolani, A.; Galli, S.; Masciocchi, N.; Pandolfo, L.; Pettinari, C.; Sironi, A. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127 , 6144. 25. Interestingly, compound 13 is a polymorphous species of a previously synthesized, green colored, 1D CP Cu(pz) 2 , obtained through a completely different procedure, where the coordination geometry of copper(II) is tetrahedral. See: Elhert, M. K.; Rettig, S. J.; Storr, A.; Trotter, J. Can. J. Chem. 1991, 69 , 432. 26. Barbour, L. J. Chem. Commun. 2006, 1163. 27. Pandolfo, L. Unpublished results. 28. Lanza, A. Unpublished results.
31 ORGANOMETALLIC NANOPARTICLES Patricia Lara and Karine Philippot CNRS, LCC (Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination), Toulouse, France; Universit´e de Toulouse, Toulouse, France Lise-Marie Lacroix, S´ebastien Lachaize, Nikos Liakakos, Katerina Soulantica, and Bruno Chaudret*
Metal nanoparticles (MNPs) are widely developed in view of their applications in various areas, such as optoelectronics, sensors, medicine, and catalysis [1]. This interest in metal nanoparticles stems mainly from their small size, which confers on them electronic properties at the frontier between the molecular and metallic states. In catalysis, metal nanoparticles are highly interesting systems because of their high proportion of surface atoms giving rise to numerous active sites [2]. Nanocatalysis has therefore emerged as a domain at the border between homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis [3, 4], with the anticipation that precisely designed nanoparticles (NPs) in terms of size, shape and surface ligands should be able to combine the benefits of both homogenous and heterogeneous catalysts, namely high efficiency and selectivity. In another scientific area, the development of quantum dots has given a strong impetus to the field of conversion of solar energy as well as to the studies of interaction mechanisms in biology. MNPs appear also of interest in the field of magnetism for the production of permanent magnets as well as for the transport properties of their assemblies and for nanoelectronics. In all these cases, the organometallic approach, by judicious choice of the precursors and of the reactions conditions that avoid the incorporation of heteroatoms, potentially detrimental to the final properties of the resulting nano-objects, can bring solutions for producing NPs displaying reproducible properties, whether catalytic, electrical, photophysical, or magnetic. It is beyond the scope of this short chapter to give a comprehensive overview of this rapidly growing field. We will, however, describe three examples that highlight the importance of organometallic chemistry in the synthesis of nano-objects, and more generally in nanoscience. Our group initiated, over 20 years ago, a new approach for the synthesis of metal nanoparticles starting from organometallic precursors. It followed (inter alia) the pioneering works of Chini et al. [5] on very large organometallic clusters, Basset et al. [6] on the use of organometallic complexes to prepare heterogeneous catalysts, Schmid et al. [7] on the preparation of Gold 55 clusters through borane reduction of AuCl(PPh 3 ), and Bradley et al. [8] who decomposed carbonyl clusters to produce NPs in solution. Our approach has taken advantage of the method we had developed in the early 1980s to prepare hydrogen-rich complexes, the most popular being [RuH 2 (H
) 2 (PCy 3 ) 2 ] [9]. This was first reported in 1982 as a hexahydride, and recognized to be a bis(dihydrogen) complex at the end of the 1980s. We could obtain a crystal structure at the end of the 1990s and a neutron structure for the analogous tricyclopentyle phosphine complex [RuH 2 (H 2 ) 2 (PCp 3 ) 2 ] in 2005 [10]. This complex was originally prepared at room temperature by bubbling dihydrogen into a solution containing a ruthenium precursor [Ru(COD)(COT)] (COD = 1,5-cyclooctadiene, COT = 1,3,5-cyclooctatriene) and 2 equiv of a bulky Advances in Organometallic Chemistry and Catalysis: The Silver/Gold Jubilee International Conference on Organometallic Chemistry Celebratory Book, First Edition. Edited by Armando J. L. Pombeiro. © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
422 ORGANOMETALLIC NANOPARTICLES phosphine. With some ligands, the solution turned black, and in the absence of any ligand a black deposit of pyrophoric ruthenium powder precipitated. Fascinated by the works of Schmid and of Bradley, and in order to prepare a hydride containing large clusters, we attempted at the very end of the 1980s the controlled decomposition of [Ru(COD)(COT)] and used various stabilizers, initially polymers. Following this technique, we obtained various polymer-stabilized ruthenium nanoparticles (RuNPs) and extended the approach both to different stabilizers (ligands) and to different metals [11]. Thus besides noble metals, this approach could, through the judicious choice of precursors, be extended to copper for applications in microelectronics and to magnetic metals (Fe, Co, Ni, and their alloys) that display interesting magnetic properties and find applications as hard magnets, for tunnel magnetoresistance or hyperthermia, as well as for catalysis [12]. In those cases, a precursor similar to [Ru(COD)(COT)] (namely, [Co(COE)(COD)], [Ni(COD) 2 ]; COE = cyclooctenyle) was used or, when such precursors did not exist, an aryl complex (Cu(Mes) 4 ; Mes
= mesityle) or an amido derivative (M[N(SiMe 3 ) 2 ] 2 ; M = Fe,
Co) since the resulting amine could be easily displaced from the NP surface. Finally, we also extended this approach to main group elements, quantum dots, and semiconducting oxides [13]. In the following, we will describe three representative cases: ruthenium, iron, and cobalt NPs with some small incursions toward platinum and bimetallics. Ruthenium is a metal displaying very good catalytic properties (hydrogenation or oxidation), and it can easily accommodate ligands and therefore allow studies on the influence of ligands on the growth of NPs. Furthermore, it hardly displays any Knight shift, which makes it a metal of choice to study ligand coordination by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), whether in solution or in the solid state. In addition, [Ru(COD)(COT)] is an “ideal” precursor because it decomposes easily below room temperature under dihydrogen and only produces cyclooctane which does not interact with the growing NPs. This is hence a source of “naked” Ru atoms in very mild conditions in solution. The resulting particles are, however, not naked since, as we will see, they are covered with hydrides and will interact with the added stabilizers present in solution [14]. Cobalt, like ruthenium, displays a hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, and [Co(COE)(COD)] can be decomposed under mild conditions to give rise to small NPs displaying superparamagnetic properties and an enhancement of magnetization compared to bulk cobalt. Furthermore, taking advantage of the “clean” nature of their surface, these particles can be grown into ferromagnetic nanorods which are monodisperse both in diameter and length. Finally, iron is an important metal from the point of view of its catalytic properties and numerous studies are presently devoted to this field. Iron is also magnetic, very abundant, and biocompatible, which makes it an interesting candidate for, for example, nanoelectronics or nanomedicine. In contrast to the preceding examples, there is no suitable alkene precursor. Iron bis(cyclooctatriene) is, for example, very difficult to decompose as are the ferrocene derivatives. However, as in the case of cobalt, by using the bis-amido derivative Fe[N(SiMe 3 ) 2 ] 2 , it was possible to obtain first very small superparamagnetic and catalytically active Fe NPs and to grow them further into iron nanocubes which organize into large superstructures. 31.2 RUTHENIUM 31.2.1 Steric Stabilization (Polymer-, Ionic Liquid-, and Alcohol-Stabilized Ruthenium Nanoparticles) Polymers have long been used to stabilize metal nanoparticles [15]. In this case, the protection is steric: an organic polymer may display a structure containing voids, thus forming “nanoreactors” inside which the NPs can grow using the amount of precursor present. The size of the particles is therefore controlled by the concentration of the solution and the size and monodispersity of these “nanoreactors”. The NPs display little or no chemical interaction with the polymer and are free from ligands outside the solvent and hydrogen. It is therefore ideal for catalysis and surface studies. The synthesis procedure (Scheme 31.1) was developed originally using as precursor [Ru(COD)(COD)] as precursor and dihydrogen as reducing agent in the presence of a polymer, namely, nitrocellulose (NC), cellulose acetate (CA), or poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) under mild conditions (3 bar H 2 , room temperature). The hydrogen treatment allows the reduction of the olefin ligands into cyclooctane, which is inert toward the metal surface. These NPs are stable and can be used for surface reactivity studies. With PVP, very small (1.1 nm) NPs were obtained (Fig. 31.1) [16]. Characterization by wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) evidenced crystalline NPs displaying the expected hcp structure of bulk ruthenium. Reactivity studies were carried out in particular with CO [17]. It has been observed that there is an influence of the reaction time on the coordination mode of CO on the surface of the NPs and that CO is mobile. Short reaction times give rise to CO adsorption in the bridging mode, while longer reaction times allow adsorption of more CO molecules only in the linear or multicarbonyl modes. Our initial results, as well as numerous literature data, showed that NPs could be stabilized in a polymer while interacting chemically only very weakly. The next question was how weak a stabilizer can be? For this purpose, the organometallic precursor [Ru(COD)(COT)] was dissolved in various solvents and reacted under a H 2 atmosphere. While in neat pentane, dichloromethane, or tetrahydrofuran (THF), only a black ruthenium precipitate was obtained, stabilization was observed in some neat alcohols and THF/alcohol mixtures in the absence of any further stabilizer [18, 19]. RUTHENIUM 423 THF, rt
[Ru(COD)(COT)] + PVP [Ru]
0 /PVP
3 bar H 2 (COD = 1,5-cyclooctadiene; COT = 1,3,5-cyclooctatriene) O O O O O N O O O N O O O N O O O N O O O N O O O N O O O O O O O HO O HO O O O O CH 3 CH 3 O O CH 3 O H 3 C n n N O H H n Nitrocellulose (NC) Cellulose Acetate (CA) Polyvinylpyrrolidone(PVP) Scheme 31.1 Organometallic synthesis of polymer-stabilized RuNPs. (a) (b)
Figure 31.1 (a) TEM and (b) HRTEM images of Ru nanoparticles in PVP. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images and X-ray analyses revealed the presence of hcp NPs, in general polycrystalline and sponge-like and displaying a regular spherical envelope and a homogeneous size or, in some cases, the presence of isolated and well-dispersed monocrystalline particles, depending upon the solvent mixture and the alcohol alkyl chain (from C1 for methanol to C7 for heptanol, see Fig. 31.2). In all cases, the size distributions is relatively narrow. The size of the particles could be controlled by adjusting the reaction temperature or the composition of the solvent mixtures. For MeOH/THF mixtures, a surprising linear correlation was established between the solvent composition and the size of the particles in the range 4–85nm. The size and morphology variations were related to the increase in polarity of the solution upon adding MeOH in THF and, consequently, led us to suspect a segregation of cyclooctane, resulting from the reduction of the precursor, from the rest of the solvent. In this respect, larger droplets are expected in the most polar solvent systems and hence the most segregated medium. Complementary experiments, carried out upon adding excess cyclooctane to a MeOH/THF 10 : 90 solution while keeping other parameters equal, allowed us to confirm this hypothesis. Upon addition of 2 or 20 equiv cyclooctane per mole of ruthenium, an increase of the particle size of a factor 1.5 or 2, respectively, was observed. These results were consistent with an increase in size of the cyclooctane droplets (nanoreactors) present in the reaction medium, inside which the ruthenium particles were formed. Thus the stabilization of the RuNPs in these systems derives from a segregation phenomenon in the reaction mixture. It is interesting to note that this result implies that the NPs are more soluble in cyclooctane than in alcohols. Although at that time the origin of this phenomenon was not clear, we have since then demonstrated that the surface of the particles prepared under H 2 accommodate between one and two hydrides per surface Ru [14]. Since the polarity of the Ru–H bond is comparable |
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling