Conclusion bibliography lesson plan introduction the actuality of the course paper

The aim of the course paper to investigate grammatical categories of number, case, and gender in Modern English with the field approach of the topic investigation.
The practical value of the course paper: As for the material studied by linguists, we can say that our qualification work is based on research conducted by M.D. Stepanova, J.Trier, S.Atkins, Charles J.Fillmore and a number of other well-known English and Russian lexicologist others.
The structure of the course paper: Our course work consists of an introduction, main part, three main parts, conclusion and references.


1.1 Functional-semantic field of number in Modern English
In linguistics, grammatical number is a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs that expresses differences in counting (for example, "one", "two", or "three or more").[1] In many languages, including English, there are singular and plural categories of numbers. Some languages ​​also have dual number or other mechanisms.
Differences in number usually, but not always, correspond to the actual number of referents of the marked noun or pronoun.
The word "number" is also used in linguistics to describe the distinction between certain grammatical aspects indicating how many times an event occurs, such as semanfactorial aspect, iterative aspect, etc. For this usage of the term, see "Grammatical aspect".
Most of the world's languages ​​have formal means for expressing differences in numbers. One common distinction found in English and many other languages ​​involves the simple two-way numerical distinction between singular and plural (car/cars, child/children, etc.). A discussion of other more complex number systems is given below.
Grammatical number is a morphological category characterized by the expression of quantity through inflection or agreement. As an example, consider the following English sentences:
The apple on the table is fresh.
Those two apples on the table are fresh.
The number of apples is indicated on the noun - "apple" in the singular (one element) and in the plural "apples" (more than one element) - in the demonstrative case "that / those" and on the verb "to eat". /are". Note that, especially in the second sentence, all this information may seem redundant, since the number is already indicated by the numeral "two".
A language has grammatical number when its nouns are subdivided into morphological classes according to the quantity they express, so that:
Every noun belongs to a unique number class. (Nouns are divided into non-overlapping classes by numbers.)
Noun modifiers (such as adjectives) and verbs have different forms for each number class and must change to match the number of nouns they refer to. (Number is a category of convention.)¹
This is the case in English: every noun is either singular or plural (some, like "fish", can be either, depending on the context), and at least some noun modifiers, namely demonstrative pronouns, personal pronouns, articles and verbs change according to the number of nouns they refer to: "this machine" and "these machines" are correct, while "*these machines" or "*these machines" are ungrammatical and therefore incorrect . Only countable nouns can be freely used in the singular and plural. Mass nouns such as "wine", "silverware", and "wisdom" are usually only used in the singular. Many languages ​​distinguish between countable nouns and mass nouns.
Not all languages ​​have number as a grammatical category. In cases where this is not the case, the quantity must be expressed either directly, using numerals, or indirectly, using optional quantifiers. However, many of these languages ​​make up for their lack of grammatical number with an extensive system of measured words.
There is a hierarchy among numerical categories: no language distinguishes a probe unless there is a dual, and no language has a dual without a plural.²
The category of number is expressed by the paradigmatic opposition of two forms: singular and plural. The strong member in this opposition, the plural, is marked by special formal features, the main of which is the productive suffix - (e) s, which exists in three allomorphs - [s], [h], [from], for example: cats, boys, roses . The term "productive" means that new nouns appearing in English are pluralized with this suffix. Unproductive means of expressing the plural are either historical relics of ancient numerical paradigms, or are borrowed, for example: suppletive forms with alternating vowels (man - men, tooth - teeth), archaic suffix-en (ox - ox), a number of individual suffixes of the singular and plural borrowed nouns (antenna - antennas, stratum - layers, core - nuclei, etc.); in addition, for a number of nouns, the plural form is homonymous with the singular (sheep, fish, deer, etc.). The singular is not regularly marked (has a "zero suffix").
). But a noun in the singular can denote not only “one discrete separate object”, but also substances (water), abstract concepts (love), units of measurement (hour) and other referents. The same applies to the meaning of the plural: plural forms do not always mean "more than one thing", but express some other meanings, such as feelings (horrors of war), types of substances (wine), picturesqueness (sands, waters). ), etc. Thus, a broader understanding of the grammatical meaning of the singular can be defined as a non-segmental reflection of the referent and the grammatical meaning of the plural as a potentially dismembering reflection of the referent; or, in other words, the singular forms of nouns present their referents as indivisible, and the plural forms as divisible.³
1. Constant analysis (singular) of trends (plural) in the global and domestic retail markets led the company's managers (plural) to the decision to create and develop a network of supermarkets that meet the highest international standards.
2. In accordance with the practice of business turnover, the shareholders (plural) of the Company have the right to direct part of the profits to remuneration to employees (plural), including the payment of bonuses (plural) and contributions to the social insurance funds of the Company (plural).
3. According to market analysts (plural), in 2007 the growth of foreign trade, especially imports (singular), will accelerate.
4. According to the clarification, these are “commercial entities (plural) carrying out business operations (plural) on the basis of contractual and accounting documents (plural) hiding their true goals (plural) and tasks (plural)”
5. Accordingly, we evaluate all of our suppliers of (plural) products (plural) and services (plural) in terms of their compliance with established standards (plural) of quality, environmental protection and occupational health and safety.
6. Strengthening the power of the federal center (singular) in the region, as well as the readiness of the central bodies (pl.) of state power to invest financial resources (pl.) to promote investment activities (pl.) in the region ( units).
7. In addition, the activity of enterprises (singular) is on the rise, which is likely to affect operating income (plural) in the corporate segment (singular).
8. All this led to an increase in (singular) information flow (singular), made it possible to clearly define the direction of action (singular) in many areas (plural) of the Company's activities (plural) through the development ( singular) procedures (plural), instructions (plural) and other relevant documents (plural).
9. An annual throughput of more than 10 million tons (plural), a strong and stable position (singular) in the retail market (market) and in other areas (plural) of trade - all these factors (plural) will form the basis of a significant higher valuation (singular) of the company (singular).
10. Individual approach (unit) to each customer (unit), high quality (unit), cost optimization (unit) and the shortest time to complete work (unit) singular) - the most important components (plural) of the image (singular) of the company (singular).
11. Analysts (plural) say that the acceleration (singular) of investment (singular) indicates that the company (singular) has entered a mature phase (singular) of the business cycle (singular) and there are no signs (singular) that this positive trend (singular) will soon end at any time (singular).
12. And despite the relocation (singular) of some industries (singular) to the lower countries (plural) to the east, studies (plural) unanimously concluded that the opening of new markets (plural) was generally beneficial country (singular) as the location of the business (singular) rather than harming it.
13. Proper corporate oversight (singular) forms (plural) an appropriate basis for the Board (singular) to achieve objectives (plural) that are in the best interests of (singular) the company (singular) and its shareholders (plural); it also provides effective performance monitoring that further encourages managers to make better use of company resources (plural) and opportunities (plural) (singular).
14. As a result, banking services (plural) have become more universal, and in addition to home loans (plural), banks (plural) also offer mortgage (singular) loans (plural), consolidation loans (plural plural) and refinancing loans (plural). .
15. As of the date (singular) of these financial statements (plural) the Group (singular) is in the process of (singular) determining the impact of (singular) changes (plural) resulting from the first application (singular) of the above standards (plural number) or an interpretation (singular) of consolidated financial standards (plural).
16. Since the stock exchange requirements (plural) are very strict, our ability (singular) to comply with them demonstrates our skill (singular) in doing business (singular) in a competitive environment (singular), as well as is one of the cornerstones (plural) on which the Company (singular) is built value (singular).
17. In the beginning, great effort (singular) was put into establishing proper working procedures (plural), establishing a mature software development methodology (singular) (singular) and establishing effective communication (singular) with customers (plural ).
18. The business manager (singular) of the company (singular) reported that a slight decrease (singular) in the net financial result (singular) was included among the factors (plural) that caused the increase in net income (singular) (singular number).
19. By purchasing shares (plural) in investment funds (plural), each buyer (singular) indirectly becomes an investor (singular) in the stock market (singular), but without having to spend long hours analyzing companies (plural) , markets (plural) and macroeconomic data (plural).
20. Enterprises (plural) producing a permanent list (singular) of goods (plural) may obtain a General Certificate of Origin from the Special Economic Zone for all goods (plural) produced by these enterprises (plural) for a period (singular number) up to one year (singular).
Here we see that in the sentences given above, we observe the predominance of the plural form.
The various semantic types of the singular and plural, some of which have been shown above, depend on the lexico-semantic differences between individual nouns, namely on the features of their "quantitative structure". For countable nouns, the category of number is a category of a variable sign, or relative, since countable English nouns have correlative forms of both singular and plural (table - table). Uncountable nouns can be used either only in the singular or only in the plural; for them, the category of number is an absolute or constant category of features. The two groups of uncountable nouns are defined respectively as singleia tantum, or absolute singular nouns, and absolute plural nouns.
Nouns in the absolute singular usually designate the following referents: abstract concepts - love, hate, despair, etc.; Names of substances and materials - snow, wine, sugar, etc.; Branches of professional activity - politics, linguistics, mathematics; some collective objects - fruits, cars, foliage, etc. There are some other singleia tantum nouns that are difficult to classify, such as advice, news, and others. As the above examples show, the nouns themselves do not have any formal signs of their singleia tantum status: their form can coincide either with the correct form of the singular - advice, or with the correct form of the plural - news. Their status as singleia tantum is formally established in their co-occurrence, which is reflected by adjacent words: all singleia tantum nouns are used with singular verbs; they exclude the use of the numeral "one" or the indefinite article. Their number is expressed with the help of special lexical quantifiers little, many, some, any, piece, little, object, for example: news, advice, a little joy, etc. As mentioned earlier, this type of transmission of the grammatical meaning of a number with uncountable nouns is so regular that it can be seen as a marginal case of suppletiveness.⁴
Absolute plural nouns usually denote the following: objects consisting of two halves - scissors, pants, glasses, etc .; Some diseases and abnormal conditions - mumps, measles, creeps, hysteria, etc.; Indefinite plural, collective referents - earnings, police, cattle, etc. Nouns belonging to the plural group tantum are used with plural verbs; they cannot be combined with numerals, and their number is conveyed by special lexical quantifiers pair, case, etc., e.g.: a pair of trousers, several cases of measles, etc.
From the point of view of the oppositional theory, it can be said that when two subclasses of uncountable nouns are formed, the numerical opposition is "permanently" (lexically) reduced to either a weak member (singularia tantum) or a strong member (pluralia tantum). . Absolute nouns in the singular or nouns in the absolute plural are "lexicalized" as separate words or as lexico-semantic variants of regular countable nouns. For example: hair as a countable noun means "a threadlike growth of skin", as in "I found a woman's hair on my husband's jacket"; Hair as an uncountable noun denotes a mass of hair, as Her hair was long and curly. Similar cases of oppositional neutralization occur when countable nouns in the absolute form of the singular are used to express the corresponding abstract ideas, for example: sing; or material associated with a countable referent, for example: chicken broth; or to express a general meaning, for example: The rose is my favorite flower (= Roses are my favorite flowers). The reverse process of restoring the category of number to its full oppositional force occurs when uncountable nouns have lexical-semantic variants denoting either various kinds of materials (silks, wines), or manifestations of feelings (What a joy!), Or causes of various feelings (pleasures of life - all those goods that make life pleasant), etc.
The lexicalization of the absolute plural form of a noun can be illustrated by the following examples: colors as a noun in the absolute plural means "flag"; attention means "courting, an act of love and respect", etc. Oppositional neutralization also occurs when ordinary countable collective nouns are used in the absolute plural to denote a certain set as potentially divisible, for example: The jury was unanimous in their verdict. Stylistically, cases of expressive transposition are noted, when nouns singleia tantum are used in the plural to emphasize an infinite number of substances, for example: ocean waters, desert sands, etc. This kind of absolute plural can be called "descriptive uncountable plural." A similar stylistically marked meaning of intensely represented large quantities is conveyed by countable nouns in repetition clusters, for example: cigarette after cigarette, thousand after thousand, tons and tons, etc. This kind of absolute plural, "repetition of the plural", can be considered a specific marginal form analytical number.