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1.3 Functional-semantic field of gender in Modern English
In English, grammatical gender is a property of nouns and pronouns only. This is one of the easiest parts of English grammar as the concept is clear and consistent.
This is because gender in English is based on natural gender (i.e. masculine and feminine) rather than grammar (i.e. morphology).
This is not the case in many other languages, where the concept of gender is based on morphology and can apply not only to nouns and pronouns, but also to other parts of speech such as adjectives and verbs.
What is gender in English?
In English, the idea is simple.
A male person or male animal belongs to the same gender class; the human woman or the animal woman belongs to another. Simple, right?
If English had grammatical gender, then nouns, pronouns, and even other parts of speech would belong to different gender groups depending on their endings - and even they would have exceptions!
Fortunately, English is much simpler than these languages.
Look at these phrases...
He gets upset. She remains calm.
The lioness stays with the cubs. The lion goes hunting.
The man is an actor. The woman is an actress.
The pronoun he and the nouns lion, man, actor refer to males or animals. They belong to the same sex class. The pronoun she and the nouns lioness, woman, and actress refer to women or animals. Therefore, they belong to a different class of the genus.
Does this mean that there are only two generic classes in English?
No. There are four in English.
This fact makes it easier for us to make a clear distinction. The simplicity of this part of English grammar is due to the presence of four classes. I will explain this to you in a moment.
Gender is of four kinds in English.
In English, nouns and pronouns are divided into four genders as follows:
Masculine:
It is said that all men (and only men) are masculine. (examples: boy, man, master, god, tiger, horse, rooster, deer, he, etc.)
Feminine:
All females (and only females) are in this gender category. (examples: girl, woman, goddess, mistress, tigress, mare, chicken, doe, doe, she, etc.)
General:
Nouns and pronouns belonging to this gender are either masculine or feminine, but we don't care about that. (examples: teacher, child, worker, infant, baby, person, person, etc.)
Castrated:
This generic category includes all nouns and pronouns that are not masculine or feminine. (Material things: stone, table, gold, book; all abstract nouns: e.g. childhood, independence, intellect, presidency, etc.)
Currently, some masculine words are used as a common gender. Not everyone does this, but if you follow this trend, you will be considered modern!
I want to give some examples:
actor - used for both men and women - traditionally an actor and actress; a poet for both the poet and the poetess. The goal is to avoid the gender bias that people are very aware of today.
governor - for both men and women. Perhaps this is due to the fact that the female ruler of the province would not want the word "governess" used for her, so that people would not understand that she is a woman hired by a wealthy family to teach children.
priest - for both men and women. A modern ordained clergyman would not want to be called a "priestess." I think the word reminds people of temple prostitution in ancient cultures.
Problem.
Look at this example.
The teacher must not lie. _______ should always tell the truth.
Would you put he or she in an empty space? The English language uses "he" for the masculine, "she" for the feminine, and "it" for the neuter. All these words are singular.
English does not have a pronoun for common gender, singular, and third person.
The nature of this problem and the various proposed solutions, even strange ones such as "singular they" (the use of which has now become respectable) is another story.
Currently, the linguistic implementation of gender differences is one of the most pressing issues in social spheres, being at the same time the subject of constant misunderstandings. Thus, the purpose of this article is to consider the current state of the grammatical category of gender in modern English as a result of the historical development of the language, as well as the pragmatic allocation of certain generic forms in various communicative situations.
As is known, English gender is realized as masculine, feminine, and neuter forms to explain the relationship between an animate noun and its external referent. In different languages, including English, there are two main types of gender systems: a strict semantic system, or semantic gender, where the meaning of a noun determines its gender, and a formal system, or grammatical gender, when noun assignments depend on formal criteria. - either by the structure of the word, or by the sound structure.
It is important to state that grammatical gender was widely used in the structure of Old English, but began to disappear between the periods of Middle and Modern English. In modern English, the linguistic concept of grammatical gender differs from the biological and social concepts of natural gender, although they interact closely in many languages, influencing their language systems.
In English, the gender category has a binary hierarchical classification represented by upper (person:non-person) and lower (male::female) oppositions. Members of oppositions are differentiated in some languages ​​(eg German, Ukrainian) by means of formal markers, e.g. declensions and articles. In modern English, there are no formal markers to distinguish between strong and weak members of gender oppositions. They can be distinguished semantically: neuter nouns in the upper level of opposition are more abstract than masculine and feminine nouns; they are a weak member of the opposition and are naturally used in a neutralizing position.
It follows that gender in modern English exists as a semantic category that retains some features of the grammatical gender that existed in Old English. In this regard, it is also called a pronominal category, since personal pronouns determine the gender of its referent noun in a particular context. The pronouns he/she/who are used to refer to personal nouns, while the pronouns this/which denote non-personal nouns.
The pronominal gender is heavily influenced by extralinguistic factors such as context, temporal conditions, and speaker. Gender in language reflects the social constructions of gender learned, maintained, and preserved by speakers. The social constructions of gender are combinations of features inherent in reality and society's attitudes towards these features. There is no clear correlation of gender with gender: the choice of a pronoun that is used to refer to a particular gender form does not depend on the characteristics of the noun or its referent, but instead depends entirely on speaker-dependent factors that are variable and unpredictable.
Therefore, the forms of gender designation are lexical-semantic (changing words: man - woman, bull - cow, etc.) and morphological (inflections: owner - mistress, hero - heroine; adding the word: cat - cat). , he is a cat - she is a cat, etc.).
1. In the guidelines (medium) of the 2007 budget bill presented in June, the (general) government proposed a gradual reduction in the budget deficit after 2006.
2. In the third quarter, the company (medium) launched another cost-cutting program (medium), but this has not yet resulted in a tangible improvement in the company's financial performance.
3. Instead of issuing share certificates for each separate (ordinary) share issued in favor of a shareholder, a joint stock company may issue a single document (neutral) reflecting the total number of shares owned by an individual shareholder.
4. It is hoped that improving geopolitics (medium), favorable financial conditions (medium), flexible macroeconomic policies (medium), structural reforms (medium) will lead to (medium) faster development of the EU (medium) in the coming years (medium).
5. It (medium) maintains relations (medium) with similar national and foreign organizations (medium) and embassies (middle) and helps its members (general) find partners (general), organizes trips (medium) to exhibitions (medium) and trade missions (neuter).
6. It should be noted that almost 50% of products (average) are bought by individuals (general) and small construction companies (average), i.e. those who build “for themselves” and therefore care about the quality (average) of the future building (neuter) are very match.
7. It turns out that, in general, a favorable assessment (medium) of both domestic and external demand (medium) contributes to decision-making (medium) on business expansion (medium).
8. Maintaining a balanced budget (medium) means tight control (medium) of all spending (medium) and deferral of investment (medium) in infrastructure (medium) and the social sector (medium).
9. Local governments (general) may also collect revenue (average) from a range of local taxes (average), such as advertising tax (average), community development tax (average), hotel tax (average), parking tax ( average). , recreational tax (average) and other taxes (average).
10. The ranking took into account many indicators (medium) that affect investment attractiveness (medium), including access (medium), transport (medium), human resources (medium), labor costs, (average) size (medium ) market (medium), business infrastructure (medium), state (medium) of the environment (medium) and activity (medium) of provincial governments (general) to attract investors (general).
11. In addition, the values ​​(medium) of acquired companies (medium) liabilities (medium) and contingent liabilities (medium) that were not disclosed in the financial statements (medium) of the companies (medium) or were disclosed in more than low amounts (medium) were also increased as a result of (medium) scores (medium).
12. Most favored nation treatment (neuter) means that foreign economic operators (neuter) have the same scope of rights (neuter), preferences (neuter) and privileges (neuter) in respect of taxes (neuter) and duties (neuter), which will being used or already being used by a foreign international operator (neutral) that has been granted the above treatment (neutral).
13. Movable property (medium) is valued using the multiplier method (medium), taking into account (medium) adjusted historical cost (medium) of fixed assets (medium), technical condition (medium), technical and economic depreciation (medium) and the impact (medium) of macroeconomic factors (medium).
14. In the first half of December (average) 2006, the company (average) will carry one million passengers (total) for the current year (average); this is a record (neuter) not only for the company itself (neuter), but for the entire aviation industry (neuter).
15. After a decision (castration) is made to reissue a license (castration) due to a change in information (castration), the licensing authority (castration) cancels the original license (castration) and makes an appropriate entry (castration) in the unified license register (castration) for the next working day (castrated).
16. One of the key tasks (medium) is to find an optimal and constructive balance (medium) between the needs (medium) of business (medium) and the interests (medium) of workers (general), as well as to create conditions (neuter) that allow domestic enterprises ( neuter) to be as successful and competitive as possible.
17. Our product (neutral) is a set of quality services (neutral) aimed at satisfying the interests (neutral) of investors (general) and subjects (neutral) of investments (neutral) in the implementation of (neutral) promising investment projects (neuter).
18. Packaging (medium) and logistics (middle) are becoming more important due to rapid market changes (middle) and customers (general) are now demanding packaging (middle) of goods (middle) and services (middle) consisting of a projection (middle ), delivery (medium), installation (medium) and after-sales service (medium), with funding also becoming a deciding factor (medium).
19. The PricewaterhouseCoopers service (neutral) includes a full range of legal and tax services (neutral); audit, consulting services (neuter); consulting services in corporate finance and human resources (neuter).
20. It is likely that (average) real wage growth (average) in the first two quarters (average) of next year (average) will also be somewhat slower, at around 3.2 percent (average).
21. Income (medium) from investments (medium) was used to modernize the second production line of the plant (medium), which allowed the company (medium) to double its production capacity (medium).
22. Regional offices (general) allow in a short time (medium) and as quickly as possible to solve various technical, legal and organizational issues (medium) during the implementation of the project (medium) at all levels (medium) states and regional administrations (neuter) .
The foregoing proves that the category of gender in modern English is realized as a semantic category, represented by lexico-semantic and morphological generic forms, as well as pronouns used in accordance with extralinguistic factors.