Contents: introduction 2

Primary sources of English floorboards and sayings.

1. 
   The sources of proverbs and sayings are very diverse. To become a proverb, the statement must be perceived and assimilated by ordinary people. In this case, the original source of the statement is often forgotten Buslaev F.I. Historical essays on Russian folk literature and art. SPb., 2011; T. 1.; Russian life and proverbs. - 680 p⁴.
   

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Having turned into a proverb, it becomes part of the public consciousness; it doesn't matter to the one who says the proverb who invented it. It can be unmistakably assumed that any proverb was created by a certain person in certain circumstances, however, for many old proverbs, the source of their origin is completely lost. Therefore, it would be more correct to say that proverbs and sayings are of folk origin, that their primary source is in the collective mind of the people. In many statements summarizing everyday experience, the meaning of the words seems to have developed into the form of a proverb gradually, without any explicit announcement. The phrase "Make hay while the sun shines", originating from the practice of field work, is an example of such a proverb. Any farmer feels the correctness of this thought, not necessarily expressed in these words. But after many hundreds of people expressed this thought in many different ways, after much trial and error, this thought finally acquired its memorized form and began its life as a proverb. Likewise, the saying "Don't put all your eggs in one basket" arose from practical experience in trading relationships.
On the other hand, it is also obvious that many proverbs were created by quite certain smart people. If this happened to smart people in the oral version, then, of course, there were no witness records left, but if this happened to a smart person who had the habit of writing down his thoughts, then in some cases you can get to the source of the proverb⁵.
In general, it would be fair to suggest that most abstract proverbs began their lives in this way. For example, "The end justifies the means", which stems from the theological doctrine of the seventeenth century, or the golden thought "The wish is father to the thought", which was first expressed by Julius Caesar, or the saying "A soft answer turns away wrath", no doubt , borrowed in its completed form from the Bible. But who can say that these proverbs did not become part of the oral tradition long before they found their written form. The use of proverbs reached its peak in Shakespeare's time, and it is more than probable that many of them attributed to Shakespeare existed even earlier, albeit in a less memorable form. The same with the Bible. The wisdom of her proverbs is certainly not original. In any case, both sources, both folk and literary, are merged into one. Thanks to the spread of the printed word, the statements of smart people increasingly began to fall into the hands of ordinary people, who, if these thoughts were to their liking, turned them into proverbs⁶.
Another important source of English proverbs are proverbs and sayings in other languages. Here again it is difficult to be sure of the original source. If a proverb existed in Latin, French or Spanish before becoming English, then there is no certainty that it was not previously borrowed from any other language. It is possible that it was originally in English, but was not written down. Some of our borrowed proverbs were completely assimilated into England, but many of them failed to do so. We don't need to think much about which Latin proverb formed the basis of our "He gives twice who gives quickly", but the proverb "Through hardship to the stars" sounds somehow foreign and less similar to the proverb than the Latin "Per aspera ad astra". A large number of borrowed proverbs remained in the original. Among them:
Nobility obliges.
In wine there is truth.
Proverbs taken from the Bible are another type of borrowing, since the Bible is translated from Hebrew, and its wise sayings reflect the consciousness of the Hebrew society. In the old days, the Bible was widely read, so that many of its sayings became part of the public consciousness to such an extent that only a few now guess the biblical origin of certain proverbs. However, many English proverbs are taken entirely from Scripture, for example:
You cannot serve God and mammon.
The spirit is willing, but the flesh is weak.
More proverbs have their origin in Scripture, although some words have been changed:
Spare the rod and spoil the child.
You cannon make bricks without straw.
Shakespeare is undoubtedly second only to the Bible in terms of the number of quotations used as English proverbs. No one, however, can be sure which of the proverbs attributed to Shakespeare are really his creations, and which are taken in one form or another from oral tradition. Scientists still continue to find proverbs that existed before Shakespeare, which later became the lines of his works. Many "Shakespearean" proverbs in English have retained their original form, such as:
Brevity is the soul of wit.
Sweet are the uses of adversity.
Others are adaptations of his sayings, for example:
A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
Many statements from literary works are used as proverbs from time to time, but never become them, remaining halfway between a quote and a proverb. These include, for example:
The wages of sin is death (Romans)⁷.
No man but a blockhead ever wrote except for money (Samuel Johnson).
Thus, proverbs have mobility and are in constant motion. Outdated ones are constantly added to them.
Frequently used idiomatic expressions similar to proverbs should be separated from the proverbs themselves. "To cry for the moon" is one of those turns. By itself, it does not give any advice and does not contain a warning, therefore it is not a proverb. But it can easily be turned into a proverb, given the form of advice, for example: "Don't cry for the moon" or "Only fools cry for the moon".
1.2. Problems of identification of Proverbs and sayings
Variety, functions and meaning of proverbs and sayings
The English language is very rich in idiomatic expressions, proverbs and sayings, which are constantly found in literature, in newspapers, in films, in radio and television broadcasts, as well as in every day communication of the British, Americans, Canadians, Australians. English idioms, very varied, are quite difficult for English learners. Of the languages ​​​​known to science, there are none in which there would be no idioms, phraseological turns, proverbs and sayings at all. But English bypassed everyone.
Proverbs and sayings, being an integral attribute of folklore, and in turn, an attribute of the culture of a given people, carry a reflection of the life of the nation to which they belong, this is the way of thinking and character of the people.
Proverbs and sayings are diverse, they are, as it were, outside the temporal space. Indeed, no matter what time we live, proverbs and sayings will always remain relevant, always falling into place. Proverbs and sayings reflect the rich historical experience of the people, ideas related to work, life and culture of people. The correct and appropriate use of proverbs and sayings gives speech a unique originality and special expressiveness.
The ratio of English and Russian proverbs and sayings
Comparison of proverbs and sayings of different peoples shows how much these peoples have in common, which, in turn, contributes to their better mutual understanding and rapprochement. It should be noted that many English and Russian proverbs and sayings have multiple meanings, which makes them difficult to interpret and compare. When selecting Russian correspondences of an English proverb, the obligatory criterion was the coincidence of one of the meanings (as a rule, the main one). Nevertheless, it is important to remember that, taking shape in different historical conditions, English and Russian sayings and proverbs often used different images to express the same or similar thoughts, which, in turn, reflect the different social structure and way of life of the two peoples and are often not absolute equivalents.
For example, the proverb: The glass is always greener on the other side of the fence. The literal translation of this proverb is: The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence. But in Russian there is no such proverb, but there is another proverb: It is good where we are not⁸.
In principle, these two proverbs are equivalent in meaning. But the literal translation of the Russian proverb will sound like this: Life is better, where we are not present.
The mechanism of creating expressiveness of phraseological units (PU) of English and Russian languages, reflecting the mental activity of a person.
Human mental activity is a combination of a complex and diverse process of manifestation of various aspects of human life. This includes cognitive processes (sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, imagination), volitional and emotional, as well as manifestations of various mental properties of a person. The factual material at our disposal (4 thousand phraseological units in Russian and English) indicates that phraseological units reflecting the processes associated with the manifestation of human mental activity predominate in both languages. The global meaning of phraseological units is formed, as is known, on the basis of various types of transfer of the meaning of a free phrase. The bulk of phraseological units in both languages ​​is based on metaphor (Russian 55.7%, English 58.4%).
1. transfer by the similarity of the action (or the general impression of the action): rus . To go with the flow; take a look;
англ. lick smb's boots; turn smth. in one's mind;
2. transfer by feature similarity :
rus . Windmill; stringless balalaika;
англ. a bad mixer; a lump of clay;
3. transfer by similarity of position :
Russian Watch from your bell tower; under the shoe;
англ. sit on a barrel of gun-powder; be on the high ropes;
4. transfer by resemblance to the physical with the state of being in any place :
Russian Not at ease;
англ. be on the nettles;
5. transfer by similarity with specific physiological sensations of the state :
Russian heart falls into the heels;
англ. one's heart sank into one's boots;
6. transfer by similarity with the behavior of the animal :
Russian squirm like a snake;
English _ Toplay possum;
7. transfer by resemblance :
rus . Cloud cloud; soap bubble;
англ. boiled (stuffed) shirt; a straight arrow;
8. transfer by similarity from external influence :
Russian Goosebumps on the back
англ. send a (cold) shiver down smb's back (spine)
9. transfer by similarity with the results and intensity of physical phenomena :
rus . Stone from the soul;
англ. lift a load from smb's mind
The most effective type of metaphorical transfer in both languages ​​is transfer by similarity of action (Russian 71.1%, English 69.8%). Less typical is the transfer according to the similarity of the trait (Russian 15.7%, English 16.2%).
Among the metaphorical phraseological units of both languages, reflecting mental processes and personality traits, there is a complex metaphor, which is based on an imaginary or unreal situation, for example:
Russian You can't ride a goat; smart as hell;
англ. have been in one's head; have a cobweb in one's throat.
A distinctive feature of these phraseological units is the absence of units with similar figurativeness in one of the compared languages: they manifest the national specificity of phraseology.
Both English and Russian languages ​​have hyperbolic metaphors (Russian 6.4%, English 5.9%).
For example: rus. Look into all eyes; head over heels in love;
англ. Be in 20 minds; be fathoms deep in love⁹.
A distinctive feature of the considered phraseological units of both languages, reflecting mental processes and personality traits, is that most of them are based on comparisons with the habits and behavior of animals (Russian 46.6%, English 52.4%). For example:
Rus. Proud as a peacock; looks like a goose at the glow;
Англ. string like a wasp; stare like a stuck pig.
The correlation of the manifestation of the mental state of an animal and a person and the transfer of signs from the animal world into the content of phraseological images makes the means of expression in these cases especially expressive. For example:
Rus. Press (press) the tail; wag the tail; walk on hind legs;
Англ. put one's tail between one's legs; (with) tail(s)-up; have one's hackles up.
It should be noted that the imagery of the bulk of such phraseological units in both languages ​​is associated with the peculiarities of the habits and behavior of domestic and wild animals, birds, insects, fish, equally noticed by multilingual peoples or attributed to them by people. These images, as a rule, reflect a bright, characteristic, easily rethought sign, a feature of the manifestation of a mental state, the behavior of a representative of the animal world and are associated with the personification of certain qualities of a person, the manifestation of his mental characteristics¹⁰.
Along with the above types of phraseological units, both in English and in Russian there are also phraseological units based on comparisons with the properties of substances (Russian 39.1%, English 41.2%). For example:
Rus. Soft as wax;
Англ. stick to smb. like a wax.
A significant part, although less numerous in comparison with metaphorical phraseological units and phraseological units built on figurative comparison, is formed by units based on a metonymic shift (Russian 9.5%, English 14.7%).
Metonymic phraseological units in both languages ​​are represented by two groups:
1. phraseological units in which the organ is called instead of the function that it performs;
Russian Hang your ears; sharpen your eyes;
англ. keep one's ears open;
These phraseological units represent the absolute majority among the stable phrases that reflect the processes of perception.
2. phraseological units that convey emotional states that are manifested in facial expressions, gestures, and motor activity of the face. For example:
Russian Clap your eyes; grab your head;
англ. knit one's brows; curl one's lips.
Rus. Crazy head; kind heart;
English a clear head; an open hand (synecdoche).
A small group is made up of metaphorical-metonymic phraseological units (Russian 3.7%, English 4.1%). For example:
Rus. Copper forehead; stone heart;
Англ. a head of oak; a heart of gold.