Contents introduction 3 chapter I. Basic approaches to learning language material in linguistic 5

2.1. The main problems of developing communication skills during the lesson

The problem of effective organization of the process of developing communication skills during educational activities is reflected in the research of domestic and foreign scientists. These are the works of Mudrik (1984) - about the interaction of schoolchildren and ways of educational influence on them, Chechet - about the features of communication between parents and children, etc. Currently, in the psychological and pedagogical literature, an important role in the development of communication skills is assigned to the younger school age. The development of communication skills in the educational process is considered in the works of Bodalev (1995), Brudnyi (1998), Vygotski (2005), Davydov (1996), Kagan (2006), Lisina (2009). In addition, we can say that the research works of Kazakh scientists Zhumabayeva et al., (2019), etc. considered the implementation of communication skills in integrated learning. The development of human communication capabilities in modern society is becoming an extremely urgent problem (Yesnazar et al., 2020). The improvement of scientific technologies has led to an increase in the needs of society for people who could set and solve problems related not only to the present, but also to the future. Since our research is related to the formation of communication skills, it is necessary to clarify the vision of such basic concepts as "communication", "personal interaction", and "communication skills". The need for communication is one of the most important things in a person's life (Nkrumah et al., 2021). When we enter relationships with the world around us, we communicate information about ourselves, in return we receive information that interests us, analyze it, and plan our activities in society based on this analysis. The effectiveness of this activity often depends on the quality of information exchange, which in turn is ensured by the availability of necessary and sufficient communication experience of the relations’ subjects. The earlier this experience is mastered, the richer the arsenal of communication tools, the more successful the interaction is realized (Lisina, 2009; Sari et al., 2019). Therefore, self-realization and self-actualization of the individual in society directly depends on the level of its communication. From the age of six, children spend more and more time with their peers, and almost always of the same sex. Conformism increases, reaching its peak by the age of 12. Popular children usually adapt well, feel comfortable among their peers, and are usually able to cooperate. Communication skills are the skills and abilities to communicate with people that determine its success (Kamalova & Koletvinova, 2016). People of different ages, education, culture, different levels of psychological development, having different life and professional experience, can differ from each other in their communication abilities. Educated and cultured people have more pronounced communicative abilities than uneducated and uncultured people. The richness and diversity of a person's life experience, as a rule, positively affects the development of a person's communication abilities. People, whose professions involve not only frequent and intensive communication, but also the performance of certain roles in communication (actors, doctors, teachers, politicians, managers), often have more developed communication abilities than representatives of other professions
In linguistics, a morph is a word segment that represents one morpheme (the smallest unit of language that has meaning) in sound or writing. For example, the word infamous is made up of three morphs—in-, fam(e), -eous—each of which represents one morpheme. Here we will define the difference between morph and Allomorph. A morph (from the Greek word morphē, which means “form” or “shape”) represents the formation of a morpheme, or rather its phonetic realization; an allomorph presents the way that morpheme might sound when pronounced in a specific language or its phonological realization. A morph is a phonological string (of phonemes) that cannot be broken down into smaller constituents that have a lexicogrammatical function. An allomorph is a morph that has a unique set of grammatical or lexical features. All allomorphs with the same set of features form a morpheme
In linguistics, an allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme, that is, when a unit of meaning varies in sound without changing the meaning. The term allomorph explains the comprehension of phonological variations for specific morphemes. An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments. The plural morpheme in English, usually written as ‘-s’, has at least three allomorphs: [-s] as in ‘hats’
In morphology, morphemes are the smallest, indivisible units of a word that have lexical and grammatical meaning. Morphs and allomorphs are the phonological manifestations of a morpheme. A morph (from the Greek word morphē, which means “form” or “shape”) represents the formation of a morpheme, or rather its phonetic realization; an allomorph presents the way that morpheme might sound when pronounced in a specific language or its phonological realization. In the book The Oxford English Grammar by Sidney Greenbaum, the differentiation between morphs and allomorphs is described as follows:
When a morpheme is represented by a segment, that segment is a morph. If a morpheme can be represented by more than one morph, the morphs are allomorphs of the same morpheme: the prefixes in- (insane), il- (illegible), im- (impossible), ir- (irregular) are allomorphs of the same negative morpheme. For example, the English plural consists of three different morphs, which makes it an allomorph because there are several alternatives:
/s/ – cats
/z/ – gloves
[əz] – wishes
As you can see, the “s” makes a different sound in each of the above examples. Morphs and allomorphs are both ways to describe the phonetic expressions (that is, the actual sounds produced) of the smallest meaningful parts of language in the study of morphology: morphemes. A word like “unhappy” has two meaningful pieces: “un” and “happy,” which together convey the meaning “not happy.” Each of the meaningful parts is a morpheme, the phonetic expression of which is called a morph. Morphs can be further classified into “lexical” or “grammatical”: lexical morphs are the meaningful roots, like “happy” or “man,” and these are often free-standing words. Grammatical morphs modify the root in a meaningful way, but may not stand as a free word; in English, suffixes like [-able] or prefixes like [un-] are grammatical morphs. Allomorphs are phonetic variants of a morph. A good example of allomorphy is the plural suffix in English, which can have the allomorphs [-s], [-z], or [-ez] depending on the phonetic environment. One way of looking at this is that any allomorph is simply what you call a morph that has another possible phonetic expression.
An allomorph is a phonetic variant of a morpheme. Sometimes morphemes change their sound or their spelling but not their meaning. Each of these different forms is classed as an allomorph. Before we dive straight into allomorphs, let's remind ourselves of what a morpheme is. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. This means that a morpheme cannot be reduced beyond its current state without losing its basic meaning. This makes it different from a syllable, which is a word unit - morphemes can have any number of syllables. Morphemes come in two varieties: free morphemes and bound morphemes.
Free morphemes can stand alone. Most words are free morphemes - some examples include: house, smile, car, peacock, and book. These words carry meaning on their own and are complete in themselves. Take the word 'tall' for example - it has a meaning on its own and you can't break it down into smaller parts (such as t-all, ta-ll, or tal-l). 'peacock' is also a free morpheme; despite having more than one syllable, it cannot be broken down into smaller parts without losing its basic meaning. Free morphemes are either lexical or functional. Lexical morphemes give us the main meaning of a sentence or text; they include nouns, adjectives and verbs. Functional morphemes help to hold the structure of a sentence together; they include prepositions (e.g. with), conjunctions (e.g. and), articles (e.g. the) and pronouns (e.g. her).
Bound morphemes
Bound morphemes cannot stand alone. They have to be bound to another morpheme to carry any meaning. Bound morphemes include prefixes, like -pre, -un, and -dis (e.g. pre-screen, undone, disapprove), and suffixes, like -er, -ing and -est (e.g. smaller, smiling, widest). Now we have a good idea of what a morpheme is, let's get back to allomorphs. To recap: an allomorph is each alternative form of a morpheme. This could be a variation in sound (pronunciation), or spelling, but never in function or meaning.
Can you spot the allomorphs in the following sentence?
I bought an apple and a pear.
The answer is the indefinite articles 'a', and 'an'. In the sentence above we see both allomorphs: 'an' for when the word following it begins with a vowel, and 'a' for when the word following word starts with a consonant. Each form is spelt and pronounced differently, but the meaning is the same. Allomorphs are like the same morpheme wearing different disguises – Pixabay. Everything you'll need for your studies in one place for Allomorph. There is some debate about the different types of allomorphs. For the sake of clarity, we will take you through some examples of the three most common types of allomorphs in the English language: past tense allomorphs, plural allomorphs, and negative allomorphs.
Past tense allomorphs
In English, we add the morpheme '-ed' to the end of regular verbs to show the action was completed in the past. For example, 'planted', 'washed', and 'fixed'. '-ed' always has the same function (making a verb past), but is pronounced slightly differently depending on the verb it is bound to. For example, in 'washed' it is pronounced as a /t/ sound (i.e. wash/t/), and in 'planted' it's pronounced as a /ɪd/ sound (i.e. plant /ɪd/). Try saying these words out loud and you should notice a slight difference in the way the '-ed' morpheme is pronounced. Struggling to notice the difference? Say these past tense verbs out loud, focusing on the 'ed' morphemes:
wanted
rented
rested
printed
In each of these words, the 'ed' morpheme is pronounced as /ɪd/.
Now do the same with this set of words:
touched
fixed
pressed
Notice how the 'ed' morpheme is pronounced as /t/.
Each different pronunciation of the 'ed' morpheme is an allomorph, as it varies in sound, but not function. The pronunciation symbols you see (e.g. /ɪd/) are from the International Phonetic Alphabet (or IPA) and they are there to help you understand how words are pronounced. For more information on the IPA, take a look at our article on phonetics and the International Phonetic Alphabet. We typically add 's' or 'es' to nouns to create their plural form. These plural forms always have the same function, but their sound changes depending on the noun. The plural morpheme has three common allomorphs: /s/, /z/ and /ɪz/. Which one we use depends on the phoneme that precedes it. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language - this could be a consonant, vowel, or diphthong. Some phonemes are voiced (meaning we use our voice box to make the sound) and some are unvoiced (meaning we don't use our voice box). When a noun ends in a voiceless consonant (i.e. ch, f, k, p, s, sh, t or th), the plural allomorph is spelt '-s' or '-es', and is pronounced as a /s/ sound. For example, books, chips, and churches. When a noun ends in a voiced phoneme (i.e. b, d, g, j, l, m, n, ng, r, sz, th, v, w, y, z, and the vowel sounds a, e, i, o, u), the plural form spelling remains '-s' or '-es', but the allomorph sound changes to /z/. For example, bees, zoos, and dogs. When a noun ends in a sibilant (i.e, s, ss, z), the sound of the allomorph sound becomes /ɪz/. For example, busses, houses, and waltzes. Other plural allomorphs include the '-en' in words such as oxen, the '-ren' in children, and the '-ae' in words such as formulas and antennae. These are all plural allomorphs as they serve the same function as the more common '-s' and '-es' suffixes. Plural suffixes often depend on the etymology of the word. Words that are pluralized with '-ae' (such as antenna/antennae) usually have Latin roots, whereas words that are pluralized with '-ren' (such as child/children) tend to have Middle English or Germanic origins.
Think of the prefixes we use to make a negative version of a word, e.g. informal (not formal), impossible (not possible), unbelievable (not believable), and asymmetrical (not symmetrical). The prefixes '-in', '-im', '-un', and '-a' all serve the same function but are spelt differently, therefore, they are allomorphs of the same morpheme. A null allomorph (also known as a zero allomorph, zero morph, or zero bound morpheme) has no visual or phonetic form - it is invisible! Some people even refer to null allomorphs as 'ghost morphemes'. You can only tell where a null allomorph is by the context of the word. Examples of null morphemes appear (or rather, don't appear!) In the plurals for 'sheep', 'fish' and 'deer'. For example, 'There are four sheep in the field'. We don't say 'sheeps' - the plural morpheme is invisible, and so it is a null allomorph. Other examples of null morphemes are in the past tense forms of words such as 'cut' and 'hit'. An allomorph is a phonetic variant of a morpheme. Sometimes morphemes change their sound or their spelling but not their meaning. Each of these different forms is classed as an allomorph.
The indefinite articles 'a' and 'an' are examples of allomorph, as they are different forms of the same morpheme. Past tense allomorphs include different pronunciations of the suffix '-ed'. Common plural allomorphs include the different pronunciations of the morpheme '-s'. Negative allomorphs include the prefixes we use to make a negative version of a word, such as '-in'. '-im', '-un', and '-a'. A null allomorph (also known as a zero allomorph) has no visual or phonetic form - it is invisible! For example, the plural form of the word sheep is sheep.