Course paper theme: Syntax in Learning language Done by: Group: Scientific adviser: Tashkent – 2023 Contents: introduction chapter I. Syntax in linguistics

The tasks of the course work : That is, students must vocabulary should consist of English words the learners will be expected to use themselves in original sentences, and those they will merely have to recognise when they hear them or see them written down by others.Teaching passive vocabulary is important for comprehension – the issue of understanding another speaker needs the listener to have passive vocabulary, that is, enough knowledge of words used by others to comprehend their meaning. This is also called receptive knowledge of English.
The theoretical and practical value of the course work: Teachers can use devices for vocabulary teaching such as simple flash-cards or word-cards. The teacher writes the English language word on one side of the card and a sentence containing the word, its definition, its synonyms and pronunciation on the other. Word cards can be an excellent memory aid.This is also a handy way for students to carry their new vocabulary around with them to look at whenever they have the opportunity.Another successful method of teaching vocabulary is the word association technique. If words are stored individually, they are more difficult to remember as they have no context.
The structure of the course work: The course work contains an introduction two chapters , conclusion , and references It is consisted of 34 pages.

CHAPTER I. Syntax in linguistics

1. 
   The basic rules of syntax in English
   

Syntax is one of the major components of grammar. It's the concept that enables people to know how to start a question with a question word ("What is that?"), or that adjectives generally come before the nouns they describe ("green chair"), subjects often come before verbs in non-question sentences ("She jogged"), prepositional phrases start with prepositions ("to the store"), helping verbs come before main verbs ("can go" or "will do"), and so on.
For native speakers, using correct syntax is something that comes naturally, as word order is learned as soon as an infant starts absorbing the language. Native speakers can tell something isn't said quite right because it "sounds weird," even if they can't detail the exact grammar rule that makes something sound "off" to the ear.
"It is syntax that gives the words the power to relate to each other in a sequence...to carry meaning—of whatever kind—as well as glow individually in just the right place"
English parts of speech often follow ordering patterns in sentences and clauses, such as compound sentences are joined by conjunctions (and, but, or) or that multiple adjectives modifying the same noun follow a particular order according to their class (such as number-size-color, as in "six small green chairs"). The rules of how to order words help the language parts make sense.
Sentences often start with a subject, followed by a predicate (or just a verb in the simplest sentences) and contain an object or a complement (or both), which shows, for example, what's being acted upon. Take the sentence "Beth slowly ran the race in wild, multicolored flip-flops." The sentence follows a subject-verb-object pattern ("Beth ran the race"). Adverbs and adjectives take their places in front of what they're modifying ("slowly ran"; "wild, multicolored flip-flops"). The object ("the race") follows the verb "ran", and the prepositional phrase ("in wild, multicolored flip-flops") starts with the preposition "in".
Diction refers to the style of writing or speaking that someone uses, brought about by their choice of words, whereas syntax is the order in which they're arranged in the spoken or written sentence. Something written using a very high level of diction, like a paper published in an academic journal or a lecture given in a college classroom, is written very formally. Speaking to friends or texting are informal, meaning they have a low level of diction.
"It is essential to understand that the differences exist not because spoken language is a degradation of written language but because any written language, whether English or Chinese, results from centuries of development and elaboration by a small number of users."Jim Miller
Formal written works or presentations would likely also have more complex sentences or industry-specific jargon. They are directed to a more narrow audience than something meant to be read or heard by the general public, where the audience members' backgrounds will be more diverse.
Precision in word choice is less exacting in informal contexts than formal ones, and grammar rules are more flexible in spoken language than in formal written language. Understandable English syntax is more flexible than most.
"...the odd thing about English is that no matter how much you screw sequences word up, you understood, still, like Yoda, will be. Other languages don't work that way. French? Dieu! Misplace a single le or la and an idea vaporizes into a sonic puff. English is flexible: you can jam it into a Cuisinart for an hour, remove it, and meaning will still emerge.”
Types of sentences and their syntax modes include simple sentences, compound sentences, complex sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Compound sentences are two simple sentences joined by a conjunction. Complex sentences have dependent clauses, and compound-complex sentences have both types included.
Simple sentence: Subject-verb structure ("The girl ran.")
Compound sentence: Subject-verb-object-conjunction-subject-verb structure ("The girl ran the marathon, and her cousin did, too.")
Complex sentence: Dependent clause-subject-verb-object structure ("Although they were tired after the marathon, the cousins decided to go to a celebration at the park.")
Compound-complex sentence: Four clauses, dependent and independent structures ("Although they weren't fond of crowds, this was different, they decided, because of the common goal that had brought everyone together.")
Syntax Variations and Distinctions
Syntax has changed some over the development of English through the centuries. "The proverb Whoever loved that loved not at first sight? indicates that English negatives could once be placed after main verbs" (Aitchison, 2001). And not all people speak English in exactly the same way. Social dialects learned by people with common backgrounds—such as a social class, profession, age group, or ethnic group—also may influence the speakers' syntax. Think of the differences between teenagers' slang and more fluid word order and grammar vs. research scientists' technical vocabulary and manner of speaking to each other. Social dialects are also called "social varieties."
Beyond Syntax
Following proper syntax doesn't guarantee that a sentence will have meaning, though. Linguist Noam Chomsky created the sentence "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously," which is syntactically and grammatically correct because it has the words in the correct order and verbs that agree with subjects, but it's still nonsense. With it, Chomsky showed that rules governing syntax are distinct from meanings that words convey.
The distinction between grammar and syntax has been somewhat disrupted by recent research in lexicogrammar, which takes the words into account in grammar rules: For example, some verbs (transitive ones, that perform an action on something) always take direct objects.1 A transitive (action) verb example:
"She removed the index card from the old recipe box."
The verb is "removed" and the object is "index card." Another example includes a transitive phrasal verb:
"Please look over my report before I turn it in."
"Look over" is the phrasal verb and "report" is the direct object. To be a complete thought, you need to include what's being looked over. Thus, it has to have a direct object. incorporated dummy pronouns despite the lack of subject and object phrases.Verbs are often flexible with regard to valency. In non-valency marking languages such as English, a transitive verb can often drop its object and become intransitive; or an intransitive verb can take an object and become transitive. For example, in English the verb move has no grammatical object in he moves (though in this case, the subject itself may be an implied object, also expressible explicitly as in he moves himself); but in he moves the car, the subject and object are distinct and the verb has a different valency. Some verbs in English, however, have historically derived forms that show change of valency in some causative verbs, such as fall-fell-fallen:fell-felled-felled; rise-rose-risen:raise-raised-raised; cost-cost-cost:cost-costed-costed.
In valency marking languages, valency change is shown by inflecting the verb in order to change the valency
Grammatical tense is the use of auxiliary verbs or inflections to convey whether the action or state is before, simultaneous with, or after some reference point. The reference point could be the time of utterance, in which case the verb expresses absolute tense, or it could be a past, present, or future time of reference previously established in the sentence, in which case the verb expresses relative tense.Aspect expresses how the action or state occurs through time. Important examples include:perfective aspect, in which the action is viewed in its entirety through completion
All languages can express modality with adverbs, but some also use verbal forms as in the given examples. If the verbal expression of modality involves the use of an auxiliary verb, that auxiliary is called a modal verb. If the verbal expression of modality involves inflection, we have the special case of mood; moods include the indicative (as in "I am there"), the subjunctive (as in "I wish I were there"), and the imperative ("Be there!").loanwords from various languages, such as Latin (e.g., stimulus/stimuli) and Greek (e.g., criterion/criteria).
Some varieties of English use different methods of marking the plural, many of which fall into one of three patterns. First, the plural morpheme may be absent when another word already indicates that the noun is plural. In the clause two girl just left, for instance, speakers of some varieties would not use the plural morpheme on the noun girl because the determiner two already marks the noun phrase as plural. Dem, which is derived from them, is often used without the plural morpheme, as in dem book (rather than dem books). This method of plural marking occurs in Gullah and
Caribbean English among other varieties. Second, the plural morpheme may be absent specifically in noun phrases denoting weights and measures but not in other situations. Thus, some varieties may produce noun phrases like ten mile (rather than ten miles) while still using the plural morpheme in other contexts (e.g., two girls). This method of plural marking for weights and measures occurs in certain rural varieties of Southern U.S. English. Third, irregular plural nouns may be regularized and use the –s morpheme. This may happen when the plural is not otherwise marked (e.g., sheeps for sheep), when the plural is typically marked with a morpheme other than –s (e.g., oxes for oxen), or when the plural is typically formed through vowel mutation (e.g., foots for feet). In the case of plurals marked by vowel mutation, some varieties may double mark the plural (e.g., feets). Regularization of plural marking occurs in several Englishes, including African-American English.
Traditional grammars suggest that English nouns can also take genitive case endings, as in the –'s in the cat's paws. Grammars informed by modern linguistics, however, analyze this ending as applying to entire noun phrases rather than the nouns themselves. In the phrase the cat with brown fur's paws, for example, the possessor is realized by the entire noun phrase the cat with brown fur, not just the noun fur. This analysis can be illustrated in bracketed notation:
What is vocabulary Comprehension? From the research, we know that vocabulary supports reading development and increases comprehension. Students with low vocabulary scores tend to have low comprehension and students with satisfactory or high vocabulary scores tend to have satisfactory or high comprehension scores.The report of the National Reading Panel states that the complex process of comprehension is critical to the development of children’s reading skills and cannot be understood without a clear understanding of the role that vocabulary development and instruction play in understanding what is read Chall’s classic study showed that students with low vocabulary development were able to maintain their overall reading test scores at expected levels through grade four, but their mean scores for word recognition and word meaning began to slip as words became more abstract, technical, and literary. Declines in word recognition and word meaning continued, and by grade seven, word meaning scores had fallen to almost three years below grade level, and mean reading comprehension was almost a year below. Jeanne Chall coined the term “the fourth-grade slump” to describe this pattern in developing readers Incidental and Intentional Vocabulary Learning.
How do we close the gap for students who have limited or inadequate vocabularies? The National Reading Panel concluded that there is no single research-based method for developing vocabulary and closing the gap. From its analysis, the panel recommended using a variety of indirect (incidental) and direct (intentional) methods of vocabulary instruction. Before delving into Listening Comprehension you should first understand what listening isListening is the ability to receive, understand, interpret and respond to verbal and non-verbal messages from the speaker. During the process of listening one can reach an understanding that is linked to several factors: listening, the message, the context, the memory, among others. The definition of Listening Comprehension.Listening Comprehension is part of the communication skills such as the development of reading and writing comprehension. Listening Comprehension has the multiple processes of comprehension in language when it is understood, interpreted and spoken.This communication skill is connected to cognitive learning as it works with the development of memory, attention, vocabulary, grammar and comprehension monitoring.Listening then is the interpretation of spoken language and this includes the recognition of discourses of sounds, the understanding of the meaning of individual words or the understanding of the syntax of sentences that may arise in a dialogue or discourse.The importance of recognising context in listening means that the person can relate what they hear to the real world in which they live as they can symbolically recognise concepts with language and link them together in order to understand what they hear and give it a meaningful meaning.
Differences between listening and hearing .Hearing is:Interpreting sound and verbal and non-verbal actions Active process .When listening, gestures, postures, facial expressions, silences, among others, are connected in order to understand the message given by the speaker. The relationship between words and actions is what makes up language and how it is interpreted when there is an understanding of what is being heard.Listening then means not only hearing, but also being able to interpret and analyse the information that is received, creating one’s own analysis of this information and creating one’s own concepts, opinions and comments on what is heard.By listening carefully, meanings are built up by the listener. During this cognitive process the following elements interact:Listening includes the sounds and organises them into sequences. The message is what is built up through linguistic understanding. The context is the message that the listener has. These stages are evaluated and give the understanding of the listening.For listening comprehension there are several developmental components, which are:This is the planning phase, where it is determined why one is going to listen, to whom one is going to listen, among other questions.that are carried out as we listen, such as formulating hypotheses, creating mental images, observing and supporting the speaker’s gestures and movements, analysing and using cognitive skills in the process.This is the assessment phase. This phase is about determining whether what was heard was understood by making summaries, forming questions, etc.All of this forms a cognitive level of learning, including memory and listening skills.The following listening comprehension skills are distinguishedRecognition: connecting, recognizing the components of a message (sounds, words, linguistic elements such as pronouns, verbs, among others)Selection: select the most important words in the message (names, verbs, key words among others), then group the selected details in level of importance.Interpretation:¹ is the understanding of the information that was heard. This means knowing the intention and purpose of the message, its main ideas and the importance of the most significant part of the message the speaker is giving.The message is then related when it is listened to carefully as details and their relationship to the sender / speaker’s discourse can be captured. Detecting with the understanding of the listening the importance of the message or the most relevant thing.you have in order to use it in advance on a specific topic and to be able to understand it better by having the right bases such as language and body expressions.To be able to infer the data of the sender, this means that it is possible to extract the information from the situation that is being presented at the moment with non-verbal codes such as gaze, fascial and body movements among others as a complement to being able to understand the discourse much better.Remember key words and ideas in order to know how to interpret them. Retaining in the long term memory is important to get the most out of a message that is heard.Listening comprehension with socio-cultural interaction.The development of Listening Comprehension is directly linked to language and how this helps to enhance learning and significant understanding of our reality, that reality which is lived either professionally or personally. Listening helps to interpret the speaker, his speech and what he wants to achieve with that speech.This relationship goes from the speaker, message, and listener, the latter being the listener as the one who deciphers the message with the language and learning tools he or she has. Listening is the key to understanding the speaker’s message.The development of listening has also been able to generate social skills as listening to others and not simply hearing sounds and linking these sounds are essential. Listening is being able to give a meaningful sense of rational interpretation to what a person says and this results in the human being, being able to develop the social skill of being able to sympathise with others.With Listening Comprehension, friendships, relationships and professional collaborations can be generated for good teamwork, including in the leadership that one wants to transmit in the field of work. Listening and paying attention is fundamental for social interaction and how it can be converted or improved into a communication skill.This social interaction of listening is often seen with the learning of a new language. Most people learn a language out of a desire to adapt to a new environment or out of a cultural desire to satisfy and expand their knowledge.The learning of a new language generates the development of cognitive skills for the person, in which writing and speaking can be evidenced in order to complete the knowledge of that language with the power of Listening Comprehension.Patrick is a student living in Switzerland and his native language is Swiss-German, however, he wants to learn Spanish because he wants to travel to South America for a student exchange. Patrick knows that the native language of this continent is Spanish, so he starts to study Spanish before starting his trip.He began to study Spanish from scratch as he had no basis in the language, thus developing and improving his cognitive skills for the processing of information from the language he is learning. In his learning process are the communicative skills he needs to acquire to be able to speak, understand and process Spanish naturally.Listening Comprehension is vital in this process because it is a fundamental part of the first steps in immersing yourself in the new language. Listening carefully will lead to imitating sounds, identifying them and being able to repeat in the best way what your teacher is teaching you. In this process, little by little, your memory will generate that what you learn is related and that you will be acquiring the skills of listening to generate new knowledge.This example shows how listening plays an important role in language learning.In order to be able to have a comprehension in the listening it is necessary to have clear some characteristics that are To know the linguistic code to be able to listen and understand better. The message always has a sequence and congruence in order to be able to relate sounds and words and bring them ideas of thought.²
Auditory skills are needed for this, as the person has to store information to be able to give feedback or reflect on the message he or she is hearing.
This involves some important elements: sounds, voice intonation, rhythm, volume, among others.With this, the person will hinder the correct interpretation of the message and eliminate what is not useful and not relevant.Listening Comprehension can generate skills for retention, relationship and understanding of a message. To be able to get the most important things out and to be able to interpret them in the best possible way in order to develop knowledge. It is also important to emphasize that the relevance of listening comprehension is not only to be able to channel and understand a message in the best way, but also to know how to listen can improve social skills.In the case of the improvement of social skills, listening is an important role in order to be able to relate to other human beings in both personal and professional life. Understanding listening builds confidence in being able to interpret messages in the best possible way with attention focused on being able to connect to what the sender wants to convey.Listening attentively will help communication skills become social and enable better integration into society. Listening brings analysis, identification and understanding in order to be able to carry out responses, feedback and even good teamwork cohesion.In listening comprehension one can construct the meanings of a message and be able to bring that message into oral interaction. If you are able to listen carefully this can strengthen personal, family and work relationships and reduce arguments and misunderstandings as you can understand the emotions of the sender and his message much better when you listen in silence and without interruption. Your memory will exercise the most important elements of the message and this will lead to reflection on what the sender wants to convey.Be clear about why it is important to listen and what the objective and achievement of the listening action is for personal or professional reasons.

2.