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‘Soft’ power
In the nineteenth century, in his treatise On War, Carl Von Clausewitz, the 
great Prussian military general and theorist of war, recognized the relation-
ship between war and coercion and politics and agreement. For him, war 
was part of politics. He wrote: ‘War is not merely a political act, but also a 
real political institution, a continuation of political commerce, a carrying 
out of the same by other means.’ In the late twentieth century, this was 
developed by many theorists, notably Joseph S. Nye, who contrasts the 
concepts of ‘hard’ power, that is, military, economic and other forms of 
coercion to influence opinion and get one’s way, with that of ‘soft’ power, 
that is, persuasive action by non- military means. Nye sees soft power as a 
power of attraction which depends on the ability to influence the preference 
of others. He describes it as: ‘A means of educating the general public and 
present and future decision- makers to think favourably about the country 
whose country offerings they are enjoying’ (Nye, 2004: 4–5).
However, ‘soft’ power can have a harder edge in that it can actively 
leverage and positively energize diplomacy in such areas as human rights, 
disaster relief and other humanitarian issues, the protection of the environ-
ment and the potential dangers of climate change. It can also help to 
prepare the ground for wider diplomacy in foreign policy.
Earlier examples of the use of ‘soft’ power have been the use of ‘panda 
diplomacy’ exemplified in the first instance when the former Soviet Union 
was presented with pandas as a gift from China in 1957. President Nixon 
visited China in April 1972 and was given a gift of two pandas. In 1974, 
the former Prime Minister Edward Heath made the first visit to China by a 
British political leader and also received two pandas; two white rhinos were 
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Cultural Diplomacy and Nation Branding 227
sent to China in return. In 2005, China, in an attempt to resume closer ties 
with Taiwan, offered a gift of a pair of pandas.
Writing in The Times on 30 April 2011, Lord Hall of Birkenhead, the CEO 
of the Royal Opera House in London, emphasized the importance of culture 
in the exercise of ‘soft’ power and called on the UK government to use it 
more often. In a debate on cultural diplomacy in the House of Lords, he 
said: ‘When it works well, it helps to explain what lies behind conflict; to 
give understanding of different viewpoints and cultures; to find solutions to 
issues and conflicts that seem intractable; and to promote dialogue and deep 
and lasting relationships of mutual understanding.’
Nye argues that the use of diplomacy in promoting the culture of one 
group of people to another creates greater awareness and helps develop 
interaction between the two cultures through cultural activities. The impor-
tant point is that this interaction must be a two- way process. ‘Soft’ power 
can also be used to help a country ‘punch above its weight’ and develop a 
stronger international identity. Examples include:
advanced technology, particularly the export thereof;
active concern for the environment on the global stage;
overseas aid and development assistance (for example, the UK’s current 
commitment to 0.7 per cent of GNI);
membership of alliances and multilateral institutions (for example, the 
UN, NATO, the EU, the IMF and the WTO);
a free media with worldwide reach (for example, the BBC World Service);
well- developed educational services (for example, university exchanges, 
scholarships, English language teaching and the British Council);
hosting major events (for example, the Summer Olympic Games, the 
football World Cup and heads of government meetings);
evidence of social harmony and welfare provision in a democratic society.
Although the difference between cultural diplomacy and propaganda is 
subtle, it is still important. Propaganda persuades you to believe my point 
of view, often against your own will, whereas cultural diplomacy encourages 
you to identify with my views because you like the kind of views I repre-
sent. The element of choice is fundamentally important in distinguishing 
between the two. The other important point is that cultural diplomacy is 
not limited to states or governments, as NGOs and high- profile individuals 
often play an important part, whether sponsored by the state or not.