Cross- cultural Communication This page intentionally left blank

Definitions
There is general agreement on the enrichment that cultural diversity adds 
to society. The 1991 Nobel Peace Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi praised 
cultural diversity as follows: ‘It is precisely because of the cultural diversity 
of the world that it is necessary for different nations and people to agree on 
those basic human values which will act as a unifying factor.’ This theme is 
continued by Felipe Fernandez- Armesto (2000), who champions the value 
to society of migration: ‘All history is the history of migration. All of us get 
to where we are because we or our ancestors moved there.’ He argues that 
migration has enriched recipient cultures, brought new ideas, challenged 
traditional assumptions and, apart from being generally beneficial, has, in 
many cases, been of vital importance to their future development, empha-
sizing that: ‘Societies with high rates of immigration find that newcomers 
do more good than harm.’
191
Summary
Definitions
Multiculturalism/pluralism
Cultural diversity
‘Melting pot’ or ‘salad bowl’
Integration or adaptation
Legislation
Gender issues
The UK, Switzerland, Canada, the USA, France, the Nertherlands, Belgium 
and Australia
Immigration
The Diverse Europe at Work Project

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192 Cross-Cultural Communication
However, when we come to the concept of multiculturalism, there is less 
of a consensus. Multiculturalism has become one of the most controversial 
intellectual and political concepts in contemporary Western democracies. 
The term does not always enjoy universal recognition, particularly when it 
is considered as an official response to coping with diversity. This approach 
is based on the theory that it is beneficial to a society to maintain more than 
one culture within its structure. Ravitch defined multiculturalism as: ‘The 
public policy for managing cultural diversity in a multi- ethnic society, offi-
cially stressing mutual respect and tolerance for cultural differences within 
national borders’ (1990: 337).
The meaning and interpretation of the term ‘multiculturalism’ was criti-
cally examined in the light of the terrorist attacks in London in 2005. As a 
sociological concept, it is taken to refer to diverse ethnocultural minorities 
who each define themselves as culturally different and express their desire 
to remain so. It is designed to engender respect for people of different 
faiths who follow different lifestyles. It observes and respects diversity as an 
essential and valued component of society, and recognizes the contribution 
of minorities. It can also be seen as a society in which people from a range 
of cultures live together in the same area, sharing equal rights and oppor-
tunities, where diversity is valued and individual differences are celebrated. 
Brahm Levey defines multiculturalism as: ‘A set of practical policies aimed 
variously at improving the absorption of minorities and harmoniously inte-
grating a culturally diverse society around liberal, democratic values’ (Brahm 
Levey, 2007: 199).
Barry (2001) believes that by treating people differently in response to 
their different culturally based beliefs and practices, one is actually treating 
them equally. He explains how such public policies can be classified into 
one of two types. He sees positive policies providing advantages to certain 
cultural groups, for example, the proportion of reserved places in educa-
tion and the workforce. Negative policies, however, are those that provide 
individual exemptions from generally applicable laws, for example, the 
controversy that arose in the UK regarding the wearing of turbans and 
crash helmets by Sikhs, as well as the wearing of the hijab by Muslims in 
France.
Gamble and Heywood (2003) contend that multiculturalism can be used 
as both a descriptive and a normative term. The former refers to the cultural 
diversity which occurs when two or more ethnic groups within a society 
have beliefs and traditions which in sum produce a sense of collective 
identity. In the normative sense, multiculturalism is seen as ‘positively 
endorsing communal diversity based upon the right of different cultural 
groups to recognition and respect. In this sense it acknowledges the impor-
tance of beliefs, values and ways of life in establishing a sense of self- worth 
for individuals and groups alike’.

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Multiculturalism and Diversity 193
Watson (2000) attempts to clarify further the terms ‘multicultural’ and 
‘multiculturalism’:
The former points to the visible and universally accessible products of 
cultural diversity, namely food, clothes, music, theatre and sometimes 
special occupations, and, on the whole, it has a very positive response. 
Multiculturalism, on the other hand, directs our attention away from 
these purely visible acts of diversity to the deeper philosophical and 
political implications of different cultures and to engagement with the 
world, and the way in which these differences jostle for recognition 
within national and global boundaries, sometimes in relative harmony 
with each other and sometimes in real conflict.
Multiculturalism is generally taken to mean that different cultural commu-
nities should live their own way of life in an essentially self- contained way. 
In this sense, multiculturalism requires that all cultures should be open, 
self- critical and interactive in their relations with each other. Multi- ethnicity 
does not simply mean multiculturalism, but it relies on multiculturalism 
to keep its vibrancy. This is seen by the opponents of multiculturalism as 
a narrow and inherently in the long run potentially dangerous approach, 
which does not help create a common sense of values, hopes and aspirations 
that unite all people within a society, but runs the risk of establishing a form 
of tribal society with no apparent common identity. Preserving their original 
culture can often lead to more isolation of immigrants and minorities. Their 
resistance has the potential to strengthen racism and, in times of tension, 
cause social instability.
However, multiculturalism can be interpreted in a different way. It can be 
seen from a liberal standpoint as the right of every culture to live side by 
side with other different cultures and to pursue their differences in cultural 
values and beliefs, while being treated as politically equal. This view can be 
extended to include the belief that cultures benefit from close proximity 
with other cultures. A third view is that cultures are constantly changing 
and adapting, and therefore multiculturalism is no different in this respect 
as it is inherently dynamic, open to the influences of other cultures, and, as 
a result, constantly evolving.