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Multiculturalism and Diversity 201
individuals and groups and is recognized as a main component of the 
success and growth of the USA.
The USA is coming to terms with the fact that its population is expand-
ing, its growth fuelled by mass immigration, much of which is illegal, from 
across the Mexican border. In the USA, applicants for American citizenship 
undergo the complicated and expensive process of acquiring a Green Card. 
They then attend an interview where their knowledge of American history 
and government, as well as their ability to speak English, is examined. They 
are also required to swear an oath of allegiance to the American flag.
France
The French have attempted to pursue a policy of integration whereby 
immigrants are expected to be assimilated into the French culture. For 
them, France is an ideal, embodied both in the French language and culture 
which all citizens should be urged to pursue and admire. The principle of 
‘laïcité’, that is, secularism, the separation of the church and state, the belief 
that religion should have no place in civil affairs is enshrined in the French 
Constitution. All citizens are considered equal and the same, the very foun-
dation on which democracy has evolved in France over the last 200 years. 
In France, there is no real policy of multiculturalism as all inhabitants are 
considered French with no overt recognition of ethnic minorities, although 
a significant majority of French immigrants come from the former French 
colonies, in particular from North Africa. Article 2 of the Constitution in fact 
avoids recognizing the existence of national or linguistic minorities within 
France’s borders. This approach is characterized by a civic concept of citizen-
ship, namely that French citizens, whatever their ethnic origin, enjoy equal 
civic, cultural and linguistic rights as individuals, but not collectively as 
minority groups. This integrationist approach to cultural diversity assumes 
that the non- recognition of minority groups is a way of preserving state 
unity and social cohesion. Therefore, one is in essence either French or a 
foreigner.
In February 2004, a bill was introduced in France banning the wearing 
of religious symbols in state schools. In practice, this meant that Muslim 
pupils should not wear the hijab, Jews the yarmulke, and Christians large 
crucifixes, in effect banning ‘signs and clothes that conspicuously manifest 
the religious affiliations of the peoples’. The bill was subsequently passed 
with a large majority in the French National Assembly, although there was 
strong opposition from some of France’s over five million Muslims, mostly 
from North Africa.
The hijab ban was supported by most teachers in French schools, who 
hoped it would halt the move towards multiculturalism, which was seen as 
separating pupils along ethnic and religious lines. They supported the ban 
on the grounds that it enabled Muslim girls to integrate more easily into 
mainstream French life. Opponents, however, claimed that the new law was 

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202 Cross-Cultural Communication
really an attempt to find another way of improving integration policies that 
have often been considered as a failure, as evidenced by the concentration of 
many immigrants in poor outer city suburbs, which often resemble ghettos. 
These conditions in turn have caused resentment and provide fertile 
grounds for those who wish to preach extremism.
Since January 2012, candidates for nationalization have to pass a new 
citizenship test in which they have to demonstrate knowledge of French 
history, culture and even French cuisine. The former President Nicolas Sarkozy 
emphasized the importance of cultural assimilation and an appreciation of 
the philosophical basis of ‘liberté, égalité et fraternité’, together with some 
knowledge of France’s cultural heritage and its contemporary culture. Those 
wishing to become French citizens are required to sign a Charter of Rights 
and Duties of the Citizen, which emphasizes the symbols of the French 
Republic. They are also tested on the French language and culture as above. 
The then Interior Minister Claude Guéant stated that: ‘Assimilation is totally 
necessary and involves the language and adhering to the essential values of 
our democracy.’ The Charter stresses that: ‘France is an indivisible, secular, 
democratic and social Republic.’ France, like the UK, has experienced some 
difficulty in designing the questions of such tests and has found that many 
of its own citizens are ignorant of some of the answers. Many questions have 
been criticized as appearing somewhat irrelevant to real life. More important 
is the requirement for French immigrants desiring citizenship to have an 
acceptable level of language proficiency. Applicants will need to be able to 
‘produce a simple and coherent speech on familiar subjects’, as it is felt that 
‘assimilation is totally necessary and involves the language and adhering to 
the essential values of our democracy’.