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‘Smart’ power
The new concept of ‘smart’ power, a combination of ‘hard’ power (the power 
to coerce or threaten by using military or economic power) and ‘soft’ power 
(the power to convince and persuade through cultural diplomacy), has been 
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228 Cross-Cultural Communication
introduced. The term ‘smart’ power was first coined after the invasion 
of Iraq as a more feasible alternative to the neo- conservatism of the Bush 
administration. According to Nye, America must ‘learn to cooperate and 
listen if it is to become a “welcomed world leader”’. He defines ‘smart’ power 
as: ‘The power to persuade other countries to do what the USA wants.’ 
Examples can include the formation of NATO, the post- Second World War 
Marshall Plan and global free trade (Nye, 2009).
Instruments of cultural diplomacy
Cultural missions
Airlines
Language and education
Gastronomy
The arts
Sport
Science and technology
National heroes and heroines
(also described as science diplomacy)
Tourist sites and national attractions
Diasporas
Figure 12.1 Instruments of cultural diplomacy
Cultural missions
Cultural missions are bodies specifically created for the purpose of cultural 
diplomacy. They are now taking on a wider role, especially in countries 
where diplomatic relations are not well established. Much of what is done 
in fostering cultural relations has long- term aims and benefits. Examples 
include the British Council, the Goethe Institut, the Cervantes Institute, 
Alliance Française, Culturesfrance and the Chinese Confucius Institute.
The British Council
The British Council operates in over 100 countries and is the overseas cultural 
arm of the UK government. It is sponsored by the Foreign and Commonwealth 
Office (FCO) by means of a grant- in-aid, but is operationally independent. It is 
responsible for building mutually beneficial relations with other countries and 
providing an up- to- date picture of life in the UK. The Council provides cultural 
exchanges, exhibitions, education, including English language courses and 
teaching material, scholarships, consultancy and the provision of teachers.
In recent years, the British Council has positioned itself as a cultural rela-
tions agency rather than as an agency of cultural diplomacy. In other words, 
it increasingly sees its role as bringing peoples together, mainly through the 
medium of English as an international language. By definition, it is a mutual 
activity involving cultural diplomacy and cooperation between govern-
ments, cultural agencies and corporations, and not a ‘marketing Britain’ 
activity designed solely to promote British culture and British business.

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Cultural Diplomacy and Nation Branding 229
Culturesfrance
Culturesfrance was described by Philippe
Douste- Blazy, the then French 
Foreign Minister, in 2006 as an attempt to give French culture ‘a label, 
a signature, a trademark’ in the eyes of the world. The agency aims to 
promote French literature, cinema, fashion and the arts abroad to restore ‘le 
rayonnement’, the radiating influence of the French language and culture. 
This is associated with investment to halt the decline of the influence of the 
French language when faced with the increasing spread of English as the 
main international language.