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Methodology
This should involve input by nationals of the cultures concerned, counselling, 
the use of simulation and role playing, with input on specific aspects being pro-
vided by specialists and discussion with recent returnees. Whenever possible, 
any training must be customized to meet individual requirements. More details 
on the methodology of cross- cultural training can be found in Chapter 15.
Culture shock
‘Entering into a culture that is foreign to us is tantamount to knowing the 
words without knowing the music or without knowing the dance’ (Adler, 
1997: 203). This definition highlights vividly the main problem relating to 
culture shock.
Other definitions of culture shock are as follows:
(1)
‘A state of distrust following the transfer of a person to an unfamiliar 
cultural environment which may be accompanied by physical symptoms’ 
(Hofstede, 1994: 260).
(2)
‘The frustration and confusion that result from being bombarded by too 
many new and uninterpretable cues’ (Adler, 1997: 263).
Culture shock is experienced when we enter a foreign culture and have dif-
ficulty in understanding or predicting why people in that culture behave 
in ways different from those in which we behave in our own culture. In 
such situations, we may feel confused, inadequate or frustrated, and this 
has a negative effect on our self- confidence. We feel cut off from familiar 
patterns of behaviour, when all the nuances or shades of meaning which 
we understand and instinctively use to make sense of life are suddenly no 
longer there to give us support. We realize our own values can be challenged 
by people in the new culture and we often find ourselves in situations where 
the rules are unclear. As a result, we feel unsure what to do in this new envi-
ronment, not knowing what is appropriate or inappropriate.
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112 Cross-Cultural Communication
The term ‘culture shock’ is attributed to Kalvero Oberg, who first coined 
the phrase during his field work in Brazil in 1958. He later defined it as 
follows: ‘When an individual enters a strange culture, all or most of the 
familiar cues are removed. He is like a fish out of water. No matter how 
broad- minded or full of goodwill he may be, a series of props have been 
knocked out from under him’ (Oberg, 1960).