D. V. Demidov
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations between
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4. Paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations between
language units. Crucial for the systemic description of language are the two fundamental types of relations between lingual units: syntagmatic and paradigmatic. Syntagmatic relations are immediate linear relations where lingual units form various lingual strings, sequences, or constructions; in other words, lingual units co-occur in the same 16 actual sequences. E.g.: He started laughing. In this sentence we can point out syntagmatic, or linear relations between the sounds [h+i:] = [hi:]; [s+t+a:+t+i+d] = [sta:tid]; etc.; the morphemes are also connected syntagmatically within words: start+ed = started; laugh+ing = laughing; the combinations of words form syntagmas within phrases and sentences: He + started; started + laughing. Besides, the sentence can be connected with other sentences by syntagmatic relations in the process of communication, in speech, e.g.: He started laughing. Everybody thought it was rather odd. The term ―syntagmatic relations‖ is derived from the word ―syntagma‖, i.e. a linear combination of units of the same level. There are four main types of notional syntagmas: predicative (the combination of a subject and a predicate), objective (the combination of a verb and its object), attributive (the combination of a noun and its attribute), adverbial (the combination of a modified notional word, such as a verb, adjective, or adverb, with its adverbial modifier). Since these relations can be observed in actual utterances, they are also defined by the Latin term ―in praesentia‖ (―in the presence‖, present in the same sequence). In real speech in one and the same utterance different types of syntagmatic relations are realized, depending on the speaker‘s intention and communicative purpose. The other type of relations, opposed to syntagmatic, are called paradigmatic. The term is derived from the word ―paradigm‖ and denotes the relations between elements in paradigms in the system of language. Ferdinand de Saussure called these relations ‗associative relations‘, implying the way different linguistic units are arranged and associated with each other in human minds. Classical grammatical paradigms are those making up grammatical categories of words, or, morphological categories, e.g., the category of number or case of the noun: in 17 Ukrainian – стіл – стола – столу – столом – на столі; in English – toy – toys; tooth – teeth; children – children‘s, etc. Paradigm, in most general terms, is a system of variants of the same unit, which is called ‗the invariant‘; paradigmatic relations are the relations between the variants of the lingual unit within a paradigm. Not only words, but all lingual units are organized in the system of language paradigmatically according to their own categories; for example, sentences may be organized in paradigms according to the category ―the purpose of communication‖, in such paradigms declarative, interrogative and imperative sentence patterns of the same sentence invariant are opposed, e.g.: He laughed. – Did he laugh? – Let him laugh. Since these relations can‘t be observed in actual speech they are also described as relations ―in absentia‖ (―in the absence‖). [5] Paradigmatic relations coexist with syntagmatic relations in such a way that some sort of syntagmatic connection is necessary for the realisation of any paradigmatic series. This is especially evident -in a classical grammatical paradigm which presents a productive series of forms each consisting of a syntagmatic connection of two elements: one common for the whole of the series (stem), the other specific for every individual form in the series (grammatical feature – inflexion, suffix, auxiliary word). Grammatical paradigms express various grammatical categories. The minimal paradigm consists of two form-stages. This kind of paradigm we see, for instance, in the expression of the category of number: boy – boys. A more complex paradigm can be divided into component paradigmatic series, i.e. into the corresponding sub-paradigms (cf. numerous paradigmatic series constituting the system of the finite verb). In othe r words, with paradigms, the same as with any other systemically organised materia l, macro- and micro-series are to be discriminated. 18 Paradigmatic relations exist not only in grammar, but in the phonetical and lexical systems of language as well. For example, paradigmatic relations exist between vowels and consonants, voiced and voiceless consonants, etc.; between synonyms and antonyms, in topical groups of words, word- building models, etc. But paradigmatic relations are of primary importance for grammar, as the grammar of language is above all systemic. Download 0.73 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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