Emerging Markets How Do Economies Grow?
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How Do Economies Grow
1997 Index of Economic Freedom takes a narrow view of prosperity
—one that seems inconsistent with democratic government beyond the short term. According to the Index, “The central question that should occupy all people concerned about their economic future is simple: How can my country achieve higher, sustainable economic growth?” But is it really that simple? As incomes have risen over the course of the twentieth century, citizens in nearly all the industrial countries have shifted their public priorities from economic growth to economic security. The bulk of the increases in government spending in rich countries has gone for programs such as insurance for health, unemployment, work-related accidents, and retirement. These same programs lie behind the rise in taxes relative to national output. In Western Europe, economic-security programs typically take 25% to 30% of national output, an amount equal to the rest of all government activities and far greater than the U.S. outlay. While the rich countries dismantled the protective systems at their borders, they erected new offsetting protective systems within. Many of the various schemes for enhancing economic security began modestly and have been expanded beyond the intent of the original sponsors. Some of these schemes have been flawed since their inception because they included incentives for abuse. But the shift in public priorities that they reflect is quite logical. People’s priorities change as their incomes rise; spending for food and shelter as a percentage of income shrinks even as the food and shelter get better. Spending on health care, most of which is financed by some form of insurance, has risen from 8% to 15% of U.S. output since 1970. Like other aspects of the welfare state, it is designed to promote increased economic security. Though mostly private, and thus, in a sense, more free, the U.S. health-care system is at the same time the most expensive in the world. It is in large measure a tax on the community. Most rich countries have long since decided that achieving higher rates of sustainable growth is not the most important economic issue. In this basic sense, then, the Index makes a political judgment that does not find clear majority support in any of the industrial countries today. Critics of Bill Clinton’s 1996 presidential campaign disparaged his attention to small issues of economic security, such as insurance for catastrophic illness and day care for two-career couples, but the polls told a story of electoral support for a government that “cared.” The prosperous Asian countries have taken a different but parallel tack. Social spending in Japan is far less extensive than in the West, as government has officially left citizens to provide their own security to a far greater degree. But the government has implicitly encouraged corporations to provide much of that security in its stead. Besides supporting the well-known practice of lifetime employment in much of industry, the government has protected Japanese wholesale and retail companies from the sort of competition that has led to the dominance of discounters in the United States. Staff-heavy distributors and retailers have become something of employers of last resort, ensuring that unemployment remains low and that consumers pay high prices. (Japan has effectively privatized the training of low-skilled citizens, an area that the enthusiasts of economic freedom in the West have largely ignored or left to government.) As their economy continues to struggle with slow growth, many Japanese are now calling for government to deregulate and for corporations to become more flexible. But most citizens, already affluent, may well continue to accept the trade-off between higher growth and security. Affluent citizens in Japan and in the West are also likely to worry about income inequality. A widening gap between the wealthy and the rest of society may foster growth by encouraging many people to work hard, but in the long term, high levels of inequality could well undermine popular support for democracy. Can a country with very unequal incomes have political freedom for long? The United Kingdom and the United States, two of the industrial countries near the top of the freedom index, seem bent on testing the question. The 1997 Index of Economic Freedom commends the two countries for increasing economic freedom in the 1980s, but the United Kingdom and the United States have also been increasing their income inequalities significantly during the last 15 years. It seems clear that most European countries have created systems of social protection they can no longer afford. But the British and American answers do not seem satisfactory either. Increasing inequality poses risks to peace in the streets, if not to our sense of fair play; it invites the poor to turn to violence, as they have in some less developed countries. Unfortunately, globalization seems sure to increase the tensions between rising incomes and increasing inequalities.• • • The Index reminds us of Adam Smith’s notion that “all economic growth flourishes from the single root of creatively dividing labor in the production of desirable goods and blossoms in the political environment that protects private property and the justly deserved fruits of labor.” Smith correctly saw that larger markets would permit increased specialization and thus higher incomes. But Smith, who also had little sense of the complexities of economic development, made the assumption that people were of more or less comparable ability and that income distribution need not be a major problem. Lake Woebegone excepted, not everyone is above average, and it will be increasingly difficult to include low-skilled persons in a high-wage economy. It is by no means clear that the magic of the marketplace can take care of such problems. We need a broader framework of analysis to understand the essential economic choices facing most countries, rich or poor. A version of this article appeared in the May–June 1997 issue of Harvard Business Review. Bruce R. Scott is an economist and professor at the Harvard Business School in Boston, Massachusetts. In addition, he is coeditor of United States Competitiveness in the World Economy (Harvard Business School Press, 1985). BS Recommended For You As European Banks Retreat from the World Stage, China Is Stepping Up Uber's Food Delivery Experiment in Barcelona Bring the Outdoors into Your Hybrid Work Routine Dave Eggers Wrote the Best Business Book of the Year Download 259.6 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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