English Grammar: a resource Book for Students
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English Grammar- A Resource Book for Students
INTRODUCTION 408
This chapter (408–423) is concerned with interpersonal meanings of grammar, that is, how language enables us to get things done by ourselves or by others. The term speech act refers to what the speaker or writer is doing in uttering a particular form of words. For example, an imperative form such as Come here! usually has the meaning of directing the listener to act in a certain way, and a clause such as Can you pass me that book? is likely to be a request to someone actually to pass the book, rather than an enquiry about the person’s physical ability. Speech acts are concerned with the speaker’s intention rather than the content-meaning of the utterance. In everyday written and spoken interactions, common speech acts occur such as informing, directing, questioning, requesting, exemplifying, offering, apolo- gising, complaining, suggesting, promising, permitting, forbidding, predicting and so on. Speech acts may be divided into five broad types: • Constatives: The speaker asserts something about the truth of a proposition, associated with acts such as: affirming, claiming, concluding, denying, exclaiming, maintaining, predicting, stating beliefs. • Directives: The speaker intends to make the hearer act in a particular way, associated with acts such as: advising, asking, challenging, commanding, daring, forbidding, insisting, instructing, permitting, prohibiting, questioning, requesting, suggesting, warning. • Commissives: The speaker commits to a course of action, associated with acts such as: guaran- teeing, offering, inviting, promising, vowing, undertaking. • Expressives (or acknowledgements): The speaker expresses an attitude or reaction concerning a state of affairs, asso- ciated with acts such as: apologising, appreciating, complimenting, condemning, congratulating, regretting, thanking, welcoming. • Declarations: The speaker performs the speech act solely by making the utterance, for ex- ample: I pronounce you man and wife; I declare this meeting closed; I name this ship x. This chapter focuses particularly on directives and commissives, as these are the speech acts in which grammatical choices figure most prominently, especially involving modal verbs and clause types (e.g. declarative versus interrogative). The chapter describes how the clause structure contributes to different kinds of speech act (such as statements, questions, directives, etc.) (→ 410). We also consider the role of modal verbs in constructing speech acts such as requesting (Would you hold this for me?), offering (I’ll carry that for you), promising (I’ll buy you one for your birthday), suggesting (We could stay in a bed-and-breakfast place), permitting (You can stay up till ten o’clock), and so on (→ 411–420). 242 E X T E N S I O N There are also verbs, referred to as speech act verbs, which a speaker can use to label a speech act explicitly (I promise you I’ll be there; He denied that he was involved in any way) (→ 422). When these are used actually to perform the speech act (e.g. I apologise), they are called performative verbs (→ 422a). The way speech acts are realised also involves politeness and the efforts speakers make to avoid loss of face, or dignity, for themselves and their interlocutors. For instance, a speaker who says I was wondering if I could have a word with you? will be heard as less direct, more polite and less imposing than one who says I wonder if Download 1.74 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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