Environmental Management: Principles and practice

Modelling
A model is a caricature or simplification of reality: often a set of equations, used to
predict the behaviour of a variable or variables. The predictions can be imperfect,
but good modelling should cope with change and inadequate data. There are many
types of model, developed by various disciplines: computer models, analogue
models, conceptual models, role-play exercises, etc. Conceptual models are used
to see what needs study and to help formulate and check hypotheses and to organize
ideas. Simulation or predictive models can provide EIA with an indication of what
may happen in the future, and can help environmental managers see how something
is proceeding. Hydrologists may set up a scale model of a river estuary and release
flows of water to study tides, currents, flooding, scour and deposition.
Climatologists are developing general circulation models, using powerful computers
to try to establish likely future climate change. Input-output models have been
used by regional planners and environmental managers for integrated environmental
management and strategic environmental management. Futures models or world
models were used to produce The Limits to Growth and other futures predictions.
Ecosystem simulation modelling is applied to specific ecosystems; social scientists
use social modelling to predict socioeconomic impact, and economists use economic
models to try to establish micro- or macro-economic trends and to test ideas for
manipulating an economy.
Environmental auditing, environmental accounting,
eco-audit, assessment, and evaluation
The environmental manager needs to have an idea of the state of the environment,
and of any threats, future problems or opportunities. There has been some confusion
over the use of the terms ‘environmental auditing’ and ‘assessment’. Environmental
auditing has been applied to stock-taking, eco-review, eco-survey, eco-audit, eco-
evaluation, environmental assessment (another vague expression), state-of-the-
environment assessment, the production of ‘green charters’ and the checking of impact
assessments to determine their effectiveness (Cahill, 1989; Edwards, 1992; Grayson,
1992; Thomson, 1993; Buckley, 1995).

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STANDARDS AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
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Environmental accounting is reasonably distinct from auditing; state-of-the-
environment accounts (see chapter 5) and environmental quality evaluation use
knowledge of how the ecosystem is structured and functions to collect data showing
the state of an area (not only terrestrial; seas like the Baltic have been assessed).
These approaches seek to establish the current status of an ecosystem; EIA (see
later) focuses on the future effects of development. Ecological evaluation seeks to
establish what is of value.
At first glance environmental auditing would seem to mean establishing the
latest picture provided by monitoring; however, it is more complex. Environmental
audit can be conducted at company, institution, state, national or global levels, and
may mean: (1) an auditing (i.e. stock-taking or inventory-focus) approach to the
environment which seeks to review conditions and evaluate impacts of development
(e.g. new systems of national accounts); (2) studies aimed at avoiding or reducing
environmental damage; or (3) a means by which a body systematically and
holistically monitors the quality of the environment it interacts with or is responsible
for (vital in any quest for sustainable development). The latter activity is now usually
termed ‘eco-audit’, an internal review of the activities and plans of a company or
other body.
State-of-the-environment accounts set out a region’s or nation’s environmental,
social and economic assets. Norway, France, The Netherlands, Canada and the World
Bank have developed national state-of-the-environmental accounts systems—for
example, France’s Comptes du Patrimoine Naturel (‘national heritage accounts’),
developed since 1978. National state-of-the-environment accounts make use of
environmental assessment and have been promoted as improvements on indicators
like gross domestic product to document development status. They may prove
important in future trade agreements to ensure that environmental effects are counted,
and in the quest for sustainable development (Ahmad et al., 1989). However, there
has been criticism of environmental accounting, mainly that it is just stock-taking
and stops short of encouraging a change of attitude towards the environment and a
precautionary approach.
In the UK environmental assessment has been used by government bodies to
mean EIA; elsewhere the term is applied to pre-development stock-taking, for example
site-selection for a nuclear waste repository. In the USA an environmental assessment
means a concise public document which should provide enough evidence for a
decision to be made on whether or not to proceed to a full EIA. Environmental
assessment has also been applied to surveillance or screening—like checking drugs
or industrial activities, and it is used for study which seeks to establish the state of an
environment with less focus on impacts than EIA.
Environmental appraisal is a generic term used in the UK for the evaluation of
the environmental implications of proposals. Environmental appraisal is sometimes
used as an equivalent of environmental assessment or environmental evaluation. A
number of agencies have published environmental appraisal guidelines (see Barrow
1997:23).

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CHAPTER FOUR
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