Faculty of english language and literaturee the department of the english language and literaturee course paper

2.3 Adulthood-Oriented Approach toward ESP Programs
Certainly, one of the most prominent principles, which make many ESP programs radically different from EGP programs, is adopting a flexible adulthood-oriented approach by ESP teachers. This means that in ESP settings, learning and teaching activities should be interpreted in terms of adult learning specifications and characteristics. Therefore, such a different perspective on ESP programs should be the major focus of both ESP curriculum designers and teachers. This is of essential importance because ESP and AE (Adult Education) programs share many similar perspectives such as learners’ autonomy, motivation, self-confidence, self-directed learning, and so forth, which cannot be underestimated. In fact, an adulthood-oriented perspective toward ESP is considered as an integrative approach, in which an ESP teacher has the double responsibility of Teaching and Counseling. Thus, in applying the adulthood-oriented approach in ESP programs, teachers should take into consideration relevant properties, listed by Sifakis (2003) as follows,
 a stage in the life cycle of an individual
 a certain form of societal status (acceptance by the society in which they live)
 a collection of ideals and values (the notion of adulthood)
These characteristics were also emphasized earlier by Habermas (1978), who believed that ESP teachers should develop personal growth and full development or maturity of adults. Besides, as adults are usually serious in what they undertake, ESP teachers should encourage learners to reinforce a greater sense of perspective and ability to make sound judgments based on their accumulated experiences. Finally, an ESP teacher should reinforce an inherent autonomy in learners, which makes them responsible decision makers and develops their motivation for voluntary participation and personal involvement in learning tasks. Therefore, the mentioned characteristics of adult learners are of crucial importance due to the type of learning styles and strategies, they consciously and subconsciously apply in leaning situations in general, and in ESP settings in particular. In addition, regarding the necessity of adopting humanistic approach in ESP courses, different learning problems should be taken into account more seriously. Among the most important barriers to learning, learners’ anxiety, embarrassment, and loss of self-confidence are of crucial importance. In fact, in adulthood - oriented approach to learning, learners’ self-respect and respect for others are highly stressed. In such a holistic approach, a sense of discipline in the learning process should not be taken for granted. Regarding the mentioned points, the social role of ESP learners is of primary prominence since it makes ESP programs similar to AE programs. The social role of ESP learners is actually related to their occupational specification and their interaction with people working in the same or other occupational environments. In fact, the majority of ESP learners are primary workers and secondary learners. Thus, they are able to acquire knowledge mainly from experience rather than academic texts and media. ESP learners are usually self-directed or sponsor-directed; therefore, their performance is heavily dependent on level of motivation and sense of self-fulfillment, they usually get from learning situation. Naturally, most of learners inevitably experience some barriers to learning because of being far from educational practices for a long time. Some barriers to effective learning can be lack of requisite skills, theoretical bases, enough time for studying, and high degree of vulnerability. Thus, there should be a great link with ESP and AE programs, and the relevance should be reflected clearly in all aspects of ESP curriculum planning. Given that, an effective ESP program should focus primarily on three essential principles. The first principle is ESP learners’ awareness of the learning process. The second one is the adult learners’ particular language-leaning pattern in relation to their general learning process. Finally, the existence of an explicit learning contract, which should be made between ESP curriculum planers, language teachers, content teachers, and learners. These principles are further discussed.
ESP Learners’ Awareness of the Learning Process
Perhaps, the active participatory role of learners in every ESP program is of much more prominence than in other educational programs. In fact, in any ESP programs, the learners should be considered as ‘student participants’, who voluntarily and actively take necessary steps toward achieving certain academic and occupational goals. In other words, learners should be responsible enough to link their actual academic and occupational needs to the concomitant instructional syllabus and methodology. In such a humanistic atmosphere, learners are more conscious and reflective on their learning preferences than conventional learning contexts. Furthermore, the active participating role of ESP learners should be extended to the self-evaluation and self-regulation of learning process if an effective ESP program is desired. In other words, through self-determination and self-regulation of leaning processes, learners can judge their capabilities effectively and can organize required courses of action. Thus, great awareness of learning process in any ESP contexts is heavily dependent on learners’ degree of linguistic competence, self-autonomy, and the interaction between teachers and learners.
Learning Characterizations of Language Learning in ESP Context
Certainly, identification of particular learning characterizations of ESP learners is highly related to general cognitive learning patterns. In other words, before elaboration on particular learning process of ESP learners, detailed elaboration on general learning skills and strategies is of fundamental importance. After such a detailed analysis, identifying the skills, strategies, and knowledge required to learn language for general communicative purposes is necessary. Finally, through getting insight from general learning patterns in both linguistic and non-linguistic contexts, particular knowledge, skills, and strategies required to use a language under certain ESP circumstances can be identified more effectively.
Learning Contract in an ESP Setting
In every ESP program, establishing a learning contract, which is a particular form of educational negotiation between different figures in ESP programs, is necessary. This negotiation should be conducted with three groups of people. The first group is the organizers, sponsors or providing agencies, who provide assumptions not only about the degree of subject-specificity and purpose of the program but also specify eligible requirements of the learners. Second, the teachers who provide initial expectations of the program and apply their exterior experiences from similar programs. Therefore, the teachers translate the sponsors’ aims into tangible teaching materials and integrate the specified objectives with the leaders’ abilities. The last group is the learners who reflect their existing knowledge and anticipation of the course. In fact, the existence of a learning contract, as Hertzberg (1972) claimed, brings about a proper cooperation between ESP teachers and learners. Therefore, in such a negotiated program, learning process is changed into a complete cycle, in which learners are left with a feeling of satisfaction of learning something worthwhile. On the other hand, the learning process is sequential and cumulative because it is built on adult learners’ existing knowledge and expectations. Thus, learning process is voluntary and purposeful. In such a flexible context, ESP learner has to be fully aware of methodological principles and learning objectives, underlying the actual teaching process. In general, in an adulthood-oriented approach toward ESP programs, detailed needs analysis should be conducted to reach a complete profile about the participants’ needs. Certainly, a detailed profile includes useful considerations about the learners’ personal vocational experiences, general learning theories, personal language learning experiences, preferred learning strategies, and decision-making abilities. Therefore, in such an integrative approach, an ESP teacher has a double responsibility of teaching and counseling.
As regards learning, adulthood relates to learner self-respect, a respect for others
(i.e. teacher and fellow learners) from all aspects (i.e. physical, emotional, social,
cultural, intellectual, political), and a sense of discipline in the learning process itself.
These characteristics are unrelated to individual learners’ strategies for learning (but
see Section 4.1), but can be implemented by teachers and course designers in dealing
with issues such as, for example, learner anxiety and loss of self-confidence in a
subject or linguistic and communicative competence (cf. the humanistic tradition of
Moskowitz, 1978; for a more recent perspective see Arnold, 1999).
In light of the aforementioned, it becomes clear that adulthood is not a binary
feature (that a learner has or does not have) but is best seen as a continuum with
many sub-features, along which a learner’s profile can be mapped. In what follows, I
prefer to use this term in the wider context given earlier and posit that it is appro-
priate for all ESP learners, not necessarily adult ones. In this light, it will be useful to
first draw the social and educational profile of adult learners from the point of view
of adulthood and then focus on the ESP learner.
In the AE context (cf. Knowles, 1990, pp. 194–195), adults’ primary social role is
defined with reference to their occupational specification and their interactions with
people (of different ages) operating in the same and/or other professional environ-
ments. Adults are claimed to be primarily workers and secondarily learners, acquir-
ing knowledge mainly from experience rather than books and the media (although
the opposite can also be the case—see below). This is contrasted with pre-adults’ (or
adolescents’) primary role as learners, who are usually supervised by parents and
teachers and whose daily environment is constrained within the formal education
system (school, university, etc.). In certain ESP cases, however, adults may be
motivated primarily as learners rather than as workers and prioritise education as
an integral element of their professional development. While pre-adults’ impetus
for learning is, more often than not, fully directed (i.e. to fulfil their social role a
As regards learning, adulthood relates to learner self-respect, a respect for others
(i.e. teacher and fellow learners) from all aspects (i.e. physical, emotional, social,
cultural, intellectual, political), and a sense of discipline in the learning process itself.
These characteristics are unrelated to individual learners’ strategies for learning (but
see Section 4.1), but can be implemented by teachers and course designers in dealing
with issues such as, for example, learner anxiety and loss of self-confidence in a
subject or linguistic and communicative competence (cf. the humanistic tradition of
Moskowitz, 1978; for a more recent perspective see Arnold, 1999).
In light of the aforementioned, it becomes clear that adulthood is not a binary
feature (that a learner has or does not have) but is best seen as a continuum with
many sub-features, along which a learner’s profile can be mapped. In what follows, I
prefer to use this term in the wider context given earlier and posit that it is appro-
priate for all ESP learners, not necessarily adult ones. In this light, it will be useful to
first draw the social and educational profile of adult learners from the point of view
of adulthood and then focus on the ESP learner.
In the AE context (cf. Knowles, 1990, pp. 194–195), adults’ primary social role is
defined with reference to their occupational specification and their interactions with
people (of different ages) operating in the same and/or other professional environ-
ments. Adults are claimed to be primarily workers and secondarily learners, acquir-
ing knowledge mainly from experience rather than books and the media (although
the opposite can also be the case—see below). This is contrasted with pre-adults’ (or
adolescents’) primary role as learners, who are usually supervised by parents and
teachers and whose daily environment is constrained within the formal education
system (school, university, etc.). In certain ESP cases, however, adults may be
motivated primarily as learners rather than as workers and prioritise education as
an integral element of their professional development. While pre-adults’ impetus
for learning is, more often than not, fully directed (i.e. to fulfil their social role a
As regards learning, adulthood relates to learner self-respect, a respect for others (i.e. teacher and fellow learners) from all aspects (i.e. physical, emotional, social, cultural, intellectual, political), and a sense of discipline in the learning process itself. These characteristics are unrelated to individual learners’ strategies for learning (but see Section 4.1), but can be implemented by teachers and course designers in dealing with issues such as, for example, learner anxiety and loss of self-confidence in a subject or linguistic and communicative competence (cf. the humanistic tradition of Moskowitz, 1978; for a more recent perspective see Arnold, 1999). In light of the aforementioned, it becomes clear that adulthood is not a binary feature (that a learner has or does not have) but is best seen as a continuum with many sub-features, along which a learner’s profile can be mapped. In what follows, I prefer to use this term in the wider context given earlier and posit that it is appropriate for all ESP learners, not necessarily adult ones. In this light, it will be useful to first draw the social and educational profile of adult learners from the point of view of adulthood and then focus on the ESP learner. In the AE context (cf. Knowles, 1990, pp. 194–195), adults’ primary social role is defined with reference to their occupational specification and their interactions with people (of different ages) operating in the same and/or other professional environments. Adults are claimed to be primarily workers and secondarily learners, acquiring knowledge mainly from experience rather than books and the media (although the opposite can also be the case—see below). This is contrasted with pre-adults’ (or adolescents’) primary role as learners, who are usually supervised by parents and teachers and whose daily environment is constrained within the formal education system (school, university, etc.). In certain ESP cases, however, adults may be motivated primarily as learners rather than as workers and priorities education as an integral element of their professional development. While pre-adults’ impetus for learning is, more often than not, fully directed (i.e. to fulfil their social role as learners), adult learners are usually self- or sponsor-directed—this implies that their learning performance is proportional to the levels of motivation and sense of self-fulfillment that they get from the learning situation. For adult learners, what constitutes a barrier for learning may stem from a relative lack of skills (e.g. numerical, writing, critical thinking), theoretical base, time, or may be due to vulnerability (as a result of their being cut off from educational practices for a very long time). It would be interesting to see how the general profile of adult learners just drawn can be integrated within the ESP context. As we will see, these characteristics are evidently valid when considering ESP learners’ needs and a concomitant teaching methodology. Such issues are often taken for granted by needs analysts and ESP teachers, more so in the earlier days of English for science and technology (EST) and less so in the learning- and learner-centred approaches of the 1980s and 1990s (cf. Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). I will examine them and their function in more detail in Section 4. Let us now consider how the terms ‘adults’ and ‘adulthood’ can be implemented within ESP.
Another indirect reference to the adult learner profile, but now in the EGP domain, was made by Abbot, who characterized most secondary-school learners as belonging in a situation where no obvious learning objective is envisaged—what he termed ‘teaching English for no obvious reason’, or TENOR (Abbot, 1981). A comparison with the typical ESP learner can be of interest. According to Abbot, TENOR learners are, in the main, school-based (and therefore adolescents), whose motivation levels are low or vague and learning needs difficult to define. By contrast, ESP learners generally operate in a post-school environment, their needs are essentially definable, and motivation levels central for the success of the learning program me (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998, p. 10²³). As far as curricular design is concerned, while TENOR situations are broadly specified and the range of language skills at best balanced, ESP syllabus design is ‘restricted’ (and defined by virtue of learners’ needs—cf. Waters, 1977) and range of skills selected for their relevance to the course and the learners’ needs. It is for these reasons (and the fact that ESP classes are small and flexible) that ESP course design is usually innovative, while TENOR syllabus design is essentially conservative. It is possible to interpret TENOR and ESP situations in terms not only of language specificity and needs/skills analyses, but also in terms of adulthood-oriented considerations. On the basis of the definitions given earlier and the more specific characterisations of this section, TENOR situations generally involve pre-adults (or learners who would not be characterised by adulthood-related considerations), whereas ESP (and some EGP) situations involve adults (or learners who could be characterised by adulthood-related considerations). It should be stressed here that, despite its wide diversity, the international history of ESP has seen numerous accounts of actual ESP situations involving learners and issues that can be characterised in terms of adulthood-oriented considerations. Such considerations can be related to a genuine concern for learner motivation and participation that is central in all ESP situations. It should be stressed, though, that the adulthood-oriented perspective is not explicitly mentioned or directly acknowledged. ESP accounts tend to concentrate more on defining other important issues such as, for example, the range of study skills (Jordan, 1997), the level of subject specificity and language competence (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998), or the range of learning oriented and vocational needs that arise in each particular case. Earlier ESP accounts (cf. Swales, 1985) indirectly raise adulthood-related considerations in the way that they handle methodology in various parts of the world. Thus, Higgins (1967), in his account of an ESP situation in Northern Thailand, memorably describes how ESP learners had been used to not being taken seriously as learners of English (Swales, 1985, p. 31). In Latin America, the description of Chilean science students (in Ewer & Hughes-Davies, 1971–1972²⁴) singled out ‘backward’ learners of languages as ‘those with the greatest promise as scientists and technologists’ (Swales, 1985, p. 49) and taught ‘instructional English’ by placing students in authentic professional situations (ibid., p. 52). The same is claimed to be the case with the communicative approach launched with the Nucleus series (Bates & Dudley-Evans, 1976), which originated in north west Iran (Swales, 1985, pp. 90–91). Motivation of adult students and a concern for authenticity is at the heart of the box-kites lesson taught in Kuwait by Herblock (1979). Similarly, the team-taught courses in the UK described in Johns and Dudley-Evans (1980) grew out of a concern for ‘the total educational environment of the student’ (Swales, 1985, p. 138²⁵). Finally, the ‘sociorhetorica’ aspect of discourse communities (Swales, 1990, p. 24) and their ethnographic rites de passage (ibid., p. 218; cf. Widdowson, 1998) also draw a picture of learners with the colors of adulthood. Such ‘indirect’ accounts can be attributed to the situational, or bottom-up, approach generally undertaken (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998) and essentially have very few preconceptions about adults and adulthood-oriented considerations. These considerations, though, can be claimed to be one of the primary concerns of the ‘educational responsibility’ (Swales, 1985, p. 188) of each ESP situation²⁶.