Faculty of the english language the department of teaching english methodology course paper

Structure of the research – the paper consists of the introductory part stating the objectives and aims of the investigation. Chapter I Theoretical aspects of teaching reading for lower level students, The second chapter presents the data about Practical peculiarities of teaching reading for intermediate level pupils. After two chapters, there are provided conclusion and references of the work.


CHAPTER I THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF TEACHING READING FOR UPPER LEVEL STUDENTS
1.1READING AS A TYPE OF UNDERSTANDING ACTIVITY AND ITS PLACE IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS
Reading is typically an individual activity, done silently, although on occasion a person reads out loud for other listeners; or reads aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension. Before the reintroduction of separated text (spaces between words) in the late Middle Ages, the ability to read silently was considered rather remarkable.[10][11]
Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and non-alphabetic scripts are oral language skills,[12] phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ.[13]
As a leisure activity, children and adults read because it is pleasant and interesting. In the US, about half of all adults read one or more books for pleasure each year.[14] About 5% read more than 50 books per year.[14] Americans read more if they: have more education, read fluently and easily, are female, live in cities, and have higher socioeconomic status.[14] Children become better readers when they know more about the world in general, and when they perceive reading as fun rather than another chore to be performed.[14]

Reading vs. literacy[edit]

Reading is an essential part of literacy, yet from a historical perspective literacy is about having the ability to both read and write.[15][16][17][18]
And, since the 1990s some organizations have defined literacy in a wide variety of ways that may go beyond the traditional ability to read and write. The following are some examples:

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  "the ability to read and write ... in all media (print or electronic), including digital literacy"[19]
  
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  "the ability to ... understand ... using printed and written materials associated with varying contexts"[20][21][22]
  
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  "the ability to read, write, speak and listen"[23]
  
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  "having the skills to be able to read, write and speak to understand and create meaning"[24]
  
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  "the ability to ... communicate using visual, audible, and digital materials"[25][26]
  
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  "the ability to use printed and written information to function in society, to achieve one's goals, and to develop one's knowledge and potential".[27] It includes three types of adult literacy: prose (e.g., a newspaper article), documents (e.g., a bus schedule), and quantitative literacy (e.g., using arithmetic operations a in product advertisement).[28][29]
  

In the academic field, some view literacy in a more philosophical manner and propose the concept of "multiliteracies". For example, they say, "this huge shift from traditional print-based literacy to 21st century multiliteracies reflects the impact of communication technologies and multimedia on the evolving nature of texts, as well as the skills and dispositions associated with the consumption, production, evaluation, and distribution of those texts (Borsheim, Meritt, & Reed, 2008, p. 87)".[30][31] According to cognitive neuroscientist Mark Seidenberg these "multiple literacies" have allowed educators to change the topic from reading and writing to "Literacy". He goes on to say that some educators, when faced with criticisms of how reading is taught, "didn't alter their practices, they changed the subject".[32]
Also, some organizations might include numeracy skills and technology skills separately but alongside of literacy skills.[33]
In addition, since the 1940s the term literacy is often used to mean having knowledge or skill in a particular field (e.g., computer literacy, ecological literacy, health literacy, media literacy, quantitative literacy (numeracy)[29] and visual literacy).[34][35][36][37]


Inferring occurs when we read a text where the motive and meaning of the textual content is no longer implicitly stated. Additionally, the capacity to join ideas and make inferences can assist expand retention.
How To Build This Critical Thinking Skill
Retention - reading comprehension is typically all about conserving what we read. Comprehension is based totally on the retention of information. By practising your summarizing capabilities and remembering what you have read, you can similarly support your analyzing comprehension.
How to enhance analyzing skills - there are a range of methods you may improve your studying skills. You may exercise pace reading to enhance your fluency or make notes every time you come upon unfamiliar vocabulary. The following steps also assist define what you might do to improve and further advance your reading skills.
1. Set apart time to examine every day.One of the most high quality methods to build your competencies is to practice. Developing your reading competencies will eventually take practice, and you can set aside 10 to 15 minutes each day to read. You can read news articles, fiction, magazine issues or any type of text, as lengthy as you are taking the time to practice your analyzing skills.
2. Set analyzing goals.You can set studying dreams for yourself to assist you enhance a wider vocabulary, reap a deeper appreciation of one-of-a-kind texts and enhance your capacity to make connections between things you examine and your own views and ideas.For example, you may set a goal to learn specific vocabulary related to a central subject matter like commercial enterprise management, science or every other issue that interests you. Then, you can find meanings to unfamiliar phrases that assist construct your vocabulary as you read. As you construct your vocabulary to higher-level phrases and phrases, you can enlarge the concern level of the texts you read.
3. Preview the texts you read.Previewing and scanning over texts can be every other step towards enhancing your studying skills. You can follow this approach by using previewing titles, captions, headlines and different text points to get an idea of what you are analyzing about. This can assist you form central ideas about the text earlier than you commence reading it.
4. Determine the purpose.As you read thru exceptional texts, exercise figuring out the purpose. Think about why a number texts have been written and what meanings or issues can be understood from a text. Additionally, you might discover the motive that you are reading for, such as to discover information, follow instructions in a guide or to revel in a story. Knowing your cause for reading a textual content can help you seem to be for key thoughts and small print that assist your purpose.
5. Apply key reading strategies.As you study extraordinary texts, you can apply a number of key techniques to assist you extend your comprehension. For instance, when previewing a text, you may discover the text shape as informational, persuasive or instructional. You may also determine key elements of distinctive texts like the central themes, issues and options or comparative ideas introduced in what you read. Using strategies like identifying textual content features, finding out the cause and taking notes can all work to assist you enhance your analyzing skills.
6. Take notes while you read.Another especially nice approach for improving your analyzing skills is to take notes whilst you read. For instance, you might take notes whilst reading a fiction novel to reap a deeper grasp of the author's preference of language, or you might write down new vocabulary while studying a science journal. Effective note-taking can immediate you to ask questions about and make connections to what you read.Similarly, growing visual representations like charts, tables or diagrams can clarify issues and thoughts and can help you form inferences from your reading. Note-taking can be especially advisable for comprehension workout routines like summarizing, too.
7. Apply what you read with the aid of summarizing.Summarizing what you read can additionally enhance your reading skills. Summarizing forces you to be aware particular details and central subjects about what you examine in your very own words and thru your very own unique perspective. You might attempt verbally summarizing what you study by way of sharing records with a pal or write a short precis to assist you retain and be aware of what you read.As you strengthen your studying skills, your verbal exchange and universal capability to engage with others and function in your profession can increase as well as.
Reading has been the subject of considerable research and reporting for decades. Many organizations measure and report on reading achievement for children and adults (e.g., NAEP, PIRLS, PISA PIAAC, and EQAO).
Researchers have concluded that 95% of students can be taught to read by the end of first grade, yet in many countries 20% or more do not meet that expectation.[49]
According to the 2019 Nation's Report card, 34% of grade four students in the United States failed to perform at or above the Basic reading level. There was a significant difference by race and ethnicity (e.g., black students at 52% and white students at 23%). After the impact of the covid-19 pandemic the average basic reading score dropped by 3% in 2022.[50] See more about the breakdown by ethnicity in 2019 and 2022 here.
Globally, the COVID-19 pandemic created a substantial overall learning deficit in reading abilities and other academic areas. It arose early in the pandemic and persists over time, and is particularly large among children from low socio-economic backgrounds.[51]
In Canada, the provinces of Ontario and Nova Scotia, respectively, reported that 26% and 30% of grade three students did not meet the provincial reading standards in 2019.[52][53][54] In Ontario, 53% of Grade 3 students with special education needs (students who have an Individual Education Plan), were not meeting the provincial standard.[55]
The Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) publishes reading achievement for fourth graders in 50 countries.[56] The five countries with the highest overall reading average are the Russian Federation, Singapore, Hong Kong SAR, Ireland and Finland. Some others are: England 10th, United States 15th, Australia 21st, Canada 23rd, and New Zealand 33rd.[57][58][59]
The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) measures 15-year-old school pupils scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading.[60]
The reading levels of adults, ages 16–65, in 39 countries are reported by the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC).[61] Between 2011 and 2018, PIAAC reports the percentage of adults reading at-or-below level one (the lowest of five levels). Some examples are Japan 4.9%, Finland 10.6%, Netherlands 11.7%, Australia 12.6%, Sweden 13.3%, Canada 16.4%, England (UK) 16.4%, and the United States 16.9%.[62]
According to the World Bank, 53% of all children in low-and-middle-income countries suffer from 'learning poverty'. In 2019, using data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, they published a report entitled Ending Learning Poverty: What will it take?.[63] Learning poverty is defined as being unable to read and understand a simple text by age 10.
Although they say that all foundational skills are important, include reading, numeracy, basic reasoning ability, socio-emotional skills, and others – they focus specifically on reading. Their reasoning is that reading proficiency is an easily understood metric of learning, reading is a student's gateway to learning in every other area, and reading proficiency can serve as a proxy for foundational learning in other subjects.
They suggest five pillars to reduce learning poverty: 1) learners are prepared and motivated to learn, 2) teachers at all levels are effective and valued, 3) classrooms are equipped for learning, 4) Schools are safe and inclusive spaces, and 5) education systems are well-managed.
Importance of reading skill:
1. Reading is Essential and serves as a primary building block for learning, regardless of the faculty subject, be it language arts or even math. In day by day life, the need to examine things such as avenue symptoms or prescriptions proves analyzing is additionally an essential life skill.
2. Reading Strengthens the Brain and improves memory. Reading additionally strengthens talent connections and builds new ones.
3. Reading Improves Concentration. Since studying is an pastime that requires focus, it is one that, when executed regularly, helps adolescents develop the capability to take a seat nonetheless and quietly for longer and longer intervals of time.
4. Reading Improves a Child’s Vocabulary and Language Skills. The extra youngsters read, the greater new words they learn. As they absorb these new words, they are in a position to outline them primarily based on the context of the material. Children can additionally research about sentence structure through reading, which can assist improve their writing skills.
5. Reading Strengthens Analytical Skills. Story lines in books frequently pose a trouble or trouble that leads to a solution. Reading these sorts of tales (e.g. mysteries) affords youth the hazard to identify and kind through the small print in order to determine the effect or solve the issue on their own whilst growing their analytical abilities in the process.
6. Reading Teaches Children about the World Beyond Their Own Doors. Children have the chance to construct a save of history understanding when are uncovered to content material that can assist them analyze about one-of-a-kind cultures and societies as nicely as people, places and occasions outdoor their own experiences.
7. Reading Fosters Self-Confidence and Independence. Children who read often increase robust literacy abilities and end up able readers. Strong literacy capabilities can lead to higher self-sufficiency and, in turn, a more assured child.
8. Reading Reduces Stress and Offers Relaxation.Reading presents an escape into other story worlds and away from day by day stressors. It also presents an escape from the mentally overstimulating flashing lights and noise of the pc or television. It is an recreation that can be achieved in silence and at a child’s own pace.
9. Reading is Fun and Entertaining. With so many genres of writing available, there’s some thing out there for everyone’s tastes. A suitable book can be even more enjoyable than a right movie on account that the reader is capable to use his or her imagination to improve the words into his or her personal intellectual pix as hostile to being constrained to what is seen on a movie screen.
10. Reading Allows a Child to Become a Better Reader. Just as everyday exercise strengthens the body, analyzing strengthens the mind. Reading commonly will not solely help your child to in addition strengthen this necessary skill, it will help your toddler take better benefit of all the benefits this talent has to offer.
Comprehension is an important component of reading. When you read, strive to understand and extract that means for higher overall cognizance of what you are reading. By learning and implementing studying techniques and altering how you read, you can enhance your reading comprehension abilities and make analyzing less difficult and more enjoyable.
There is some debate as to the optimum age to teach children to read.
The Common Core State Standards Initiative (CCSS) in the United States has standards for foundational reading skills in kindergarten and grade one that include instruction in print concepts, phonological awareness, phonics, word recognition and fluency.[92] However, some critics of CCSS say that "To achieve reading standards usually calls for long hours of drill and worksheets – and reduces other vital areas of learning such as math, science, social studies, art, music and creative play".[93]
The PISA 2007 OECD data from 54 countries demonstrates "no association between school entry age ... and reading achievement at age 15".[94] Also, a German study of 50 kindergartens compared children who, at age 5, had spent a year either "academically focused", or "play-arts focused" and found that in time the two groups became inseparable in reading skill.[95] The authors conclude that the effects of early reading are like "watering a garden before a rainstorm; the earlier watering is rendered undetectable by the rainstorm, the watering wastes precious water, and the watering detracts the gardener from other important preparatory groundwork".[94]
Some scholars favor a developmentally appropriate practice (DPA) in which formal instruction on reading begins when children are about six or seven years old. And to support that theory some point out that children in Finland start school at age seven (Finland ranked 5th in the 2016 PIRLS international grade four reading achievement.)[96] In a discussion on academic kindergartens, professor of child development David Elkind has argued that, since "there is no solid research demonstrating that early academic training is superior to (or worse than) the more traditional, hands-on model of early education", educators should defer to developmental approaches that provide young children with ample time and opportunity to explore the natural world on their own terms.[97] Elkind emphasized the principle that "early education must start with the child, not with the subject matter to be taught".[97] In response, Grover J. Whitehurst, Director, Brown Center on Education Policy, (part of Brookings Institution)[98] said David Elkind is relying too much on philosophies of education rather than science and research. He continues to say education practices are "doomed to cycles of fad and fancy" until they become more based on evidence-based practice.[99]
On the subject of Finland's academic results, as some researchers point out, prior to starting school Finnish children must participate in one year of compulsory free pre-primary education and most are reading before they start school.[100][101] And, with respect to developmentally appropriate practice (DPA), in 2019 the National Association for the Education of Young Children, Washington, D.C., released a draft position paper on DPA saying "The notion that young children are not ready for academic subject matter is a misunderstanding of developmentally appropriate practice; particularly in grades 1 through 3, almost all subject matter can be taught in ways that are meaningful and engaging for each child".[102] And, researchers at The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential say it is a myth that early readers are bored or become trouble makers in school.[103]
Other researchers and educators favor limited amounts of literacy instruction at the age of four and five, in addition to non-academic, intellectually stimulating activities.[104]
Reviews of the academic literature by the Education Endowment Foundation in the UK have found that starting literacy teaching in preschool has "been consistently found to have a positive effect on early learning outcomes"[105] and that "beginning early years education at a younger age appears to have a high positive impact on learning outcomes".[106] This supports current standard practice in the UK which includes developing children's phonemic awareness in preschool and teaching reading from age four.
A study in Chicago reports that an early education program for children from low-income families is estimated to generate $4 to $11 of economic benefits over a child's lifetime for every dollar spent initially on the program, according to a cost-benefit analysis funded by the National Institutes of Health. The program is staffed by certified teachers and offers "instruction in reading and math, small group activities and educational field trips for children ages 3 through 9".[107][108]
There does not appear to be any definitive research about the "magic window" to begin reading instruction.[101] However, there is also no definitive research to suggest that starting early causes any harm. Researcher Timothy Shanahan, suggests, "Start teaching reading from the time you have kids available to teach, and pay attention to how they respond to this instruction – both in terms of how well they are learning what you are teaching, and how happy and invested they seem to be. If you haven't started yet, don't feel guilty, just get going".[101]
Reading comprehension is the capability to comprehend or understand, what you are reading. This is an intentional and lively part of reading and takes location before, throughout and after you study something. By being able to comprehend what you are reading, you can extract which means from the textual content and better recognize what the author is trying to convey.
There are two factors of analyzing comprehension: textual content comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. Vocabulary information is the potential to understand the language being used, whilst textual content comprehension is the use of this language to boost an attention of what the that means is behind the text.
Reading comprehension is necessary for quite a few motives and can grant many benefits. Being able to effectively examine can improve both your non-public and professional life and can make bigger your standard enjoyment of reading. Knowing how to recognize a textual content can help improve your understanding in sure areas and help you learn new skills and data faster.
Just like teaching methodology, reading theories have had their shifts and transitions. Starting from the traditional view which focused on the printed form of a text and moving to the cognitive view that enhanced the role of background knowledge in addition to what appeared on the printed page, they ultimately culminated in the metacognitive view which is now in vogue. It is based on the control and manipulation that a reader can have on the act of comprehending a text.

The traditional view

According to Dole et al. (1991), in the traditional view of reading, novice readers acquire a set of hierarchically ordered sub-skills that sequentially build toward comprehension ability. Having mastered these skills, readers are viewed as experts who comprehend what they read.

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  Readers are passive recipients of information in the text. Meaning resides in the text and the reader has to reproduce meaning.
  

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  According to Nunan (1991), reading in this view is basically a matter of decoding a series of written symbols into their aural equivalents in the quest for making sense of the text. He referred to this process as the 'bottom-up' view of reading.
  

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  McCarthy (1999) has called this view 'outside-in' processing, referring to the idea that meaning exists in the printed page and is interpreted by the reader then taken in.
  

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  This model of reading has almost always been under attack as being insufficient and defective for the main reason that it relies on the formal features of the language, mainly words and structure.
  

Although it is possible to accept this rejection for the fact that there is over-reliance on structure in this view, it must be confessed that knowledge of linguistic features is also necessary for comprehension to take place. To counteract over-reliance on form in the traditional view of reading, the cognitive view was introduced.

The cognitive view

The 'top-down' model is in direct opposition to the 'bottom-up' model. According to Nunan (1991) and Dubin and Bycina (1991), the psycholinguistic model of reading and the top-down model are in exact concordance.

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  Goodman (1967; cited in Paran, 1996) presented reading as a psycholinguistic guessing game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, make new hypotheses, and so forth. Here, the reader rather than the text is at the heart of the reading process.
  

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  The schema theory of reading also fits within the cognitively based view of reading. Rumelhart (1977) has described schemata as "building blocks of cognition" which are used in the process of interpreting sensory data, in retrieving information from memory, in organising goals and subgoals, in allocating resources, and in guiding the flow of the processing system.
  

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  Rumelhart (1977) has also stated that if our schemata are incomplete and do not provide an understanding of the incoming data from the text we will have problems processing and understanding the text.
  

Cognitively based views of reading comprehension emphasize the interactive nature of reading and the constructive nature of comprehension. Dole et al. (1991) have stated that, besides knowledge brought to bear on the reading process, a set of flexible, adaptable strategies are used to make sense of a text and to monitor ongoing understanding.

The metacognitive view

According to Block (1992), there is now no more debate on "whether reading is a bottom-up, language-based process or a top-down, knowledge-based process." It is also no more problematic to accept the influence of background knowledge on both L1 and L2 readers. Research has gone even further to define the control readers execute on their ability to understand a text. This control, Block (1992) has referred to as metacognition.

Metacognition involves thinking about what one is doing while reading. Klein et al. (1991) stated that strategic readers attempt the following while reading:

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  Identifying the purpose of the reading before reading
  

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  Identifying the form or type of the text before reading
  

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  Thinking about the general character and features of the form or type of the text. For instance, they try to locate a topic sentence and follow supporting details toward a conclusion
  

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  Projecting the author's purpose for writing the text (while reading it),
  

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  Choosing, scanning, or reading in detail
  

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  Making continuous predictions about what will occur next, based on information obtained earlier, prior knowledge, and conclusions obtained within the previous stages.
  

Moreover, they attempt to form a summary of what was read. Carrying out the previous steps requires the reader to be able to classify, sequence, establish whole-part relationships, compare and contrast, determine cause-effect, summarise, hypothesise and predict, infer, and conclude.