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Glycolysis — Splitting Glucose to Form Pyruvic Acid By far the most important means of releasing energy from the glucose molecule is initiated by glycolysis. The endproducts of glycolysis are the oxidized to provide energy. Glycolysis means splitting of the glucose molecule to form two moleculesof pyruvic acid. Glycolysis occurs by 10 successive chemical reactions, shown in Figure 67- 5. Each step is catalyzed by at least one specific protein enzyme. Note that glucose is first converted into fructose-1,6-diphosphate and then split into two three-carbonatom molecules, glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate, each of which is then converted through five additional steps into pyruvic acid. Formation of ATP During Glycolysis. Despite the many chemical reactions in the glycolytic series, only a small Diuretics, Kidney Diseases Diuretics and TheirMechanisms of Action The many diuretics available for clinical use have different mechanisms of action and, therefore, inhibit tubular reabsorption at different sites along the renal nephron.The general classes of diuretics and their mechanisms of action are shown in Table 31-1. Osmotic Diuretics Decrease Water Reabsorptionby Increasing Osmotic Pressure of Tubular Fluid Large volumes of urine are also formed in certain diseases associated with excess solutes that fail to be reabsorbedfrom the tubular fluid. For example, when theblood glucose concentration rises to high levels in diabetesmellitus, the increased filtered load of glucose into thetubules exceeds their capacity to reabsorb glucose (i.e., exceeds their transport maximum for glucose . ―Loop‖ Diuretics Decrease Active Sodium-Chloride-Potassium Reabsorptionin the Thick Ascending Loop of Henle Furosemide, ethacrynic acid, and bumetanide are powerful diuretics that decrease active reabsorption in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle by blocking the 1-sodium, 2-chloride, 1- potassium co-transporter located in the luminal membrane of the epithelial cells. These ―loop‖ diuretics are among the most powerful of the clinically used diuretics. Thiazide Diuretics Inhibit Sodium-Chloride Reabsorption in the Early Distal Tubule The thiazide derivatives, such as chlorothiazide, act mainly on the early distal tubules to block the sodium-chloride co-transporter in the luminal membrane of the tubular cells. Under favorable conditions, these agents may cause a maximum of 5 to 10 percent of the glomerular filtrate to pass into the urine. This is about the same amount of sodium normally reabsorbed by the distal tubules. Sodium Reabsorption from and Potassium Secretion into the Cortical Collecting Tubule Spironolactone and eplerenone are mineralocorticoidreceptor antagonists that compete with aldosterone for receptor binding sites in the cortical collecting tubule epithelialcells and, therefore, can decrease the reabsorption of sodium and secretion of potassium in this tubular segment. As a consequence, sodium remains in the tubules and acts as an osmotic diuretic, causing increased excretionof water, as well as sodium. Because these drugs also block the effect of aldosterone to promote potassium secretion in the tubules, they decrease the excretion ofpotassium. Diuretics That Block Sodium Channels in the Collecting Tubules Decrease Sodium Reabsorption Amiloride and triamterene also inhibit sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the collecting tubules, similar to the effects of spironolactone. However, at the cellular level, these drugs act directly to block the entry of sodium into the sodium channels of the luminal membraneof the collecting tubule epithelial cells. Acute Renal Failure The causes of acute renal failure can be divided into three main categories: 1. Acute renal failure resulting from decreased bloodsupply to the kidneys; this condition is often referred to as prerenal acute renal failure to reflect the fact that the abnormality occurs as a result of an abnormality originating outside the kidneys. For example, prerenal acute renal failure can be a consequence of heart failure with reduced cardiac output and low blood pressure or conditions associated with diminished blood volume and low blood pressure, such as severe hemorrhage. 2. Intrarenal acute renal failure resulting from abnormalities within the kidney itself, including those that affect the blood vessels, glomeruli, or tubules. 3. Postrenal acute renal failure, resulting from obstruction of the urinary collecting system anywh re fromthe calyces to the outflow from the bladder. Intrarenal Acute Renal Failure Caused by Abnormalities Within the Kidney Abnormalities that originate within the kidney and that abruptly diminish urine output fall into the general category of intrarenal acute renal failure. This category of acute renal failure can be further divided into (1) conditions thatinjure the glome, and (3) conditions that cause damage to the renal interstitium. This type of classification refers to the primary site of injury, but because the renal vasculature and tubular system are functionally int rdependent, damage to the renal blood vessels can lead to tubular damage, and primary tubular damage can lead to damage of the renal blood vessels. Some causes of intrarenal acute renal failure are listed in Table 31-3. Acute Re al Failure Caused by Glomerulonephritis Acute glomerulonephritis is a type of intrarenal acuterenal failure usually caused by an abnormal immune reaction that damages the glomeruli. In about 95 percent of the patients with this disease, damage to the glomeruli occurs 1 to 3 weeks after an infection elsewhere in themnbody, usually caused by certain types of group A beta streptococci. The infection may have been a streptococcal sore throat, streptococcal tonsillitis, or even streptococcal infection of the skin Acute Tubular Necrosis Caused by Severe Renal Ischemia Severe ischemia of the kidney can result from circ latory shock or any other disturbance that severely impairs the blood supply to the kidney. If the ischemia is severe enough to seriously impair the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to the renal tubular epithelial cells, and if the insult is prolonged, damage or eventual destruction of the epithelial cells can occur. Acute Tubular Necrosis Caused by Toxins or Medications There is a long list of renal poisons and medications that can damage the tubular epithelium and cause acute renal failure. Some of these are carbon tetrachloride, heavy metals (such as mercury and lead), ethylene glycol (which is a major component in antifreeze), various insecticides, some medications (such as tetracyclines) used as antibiotics, and cis-platinum, which is used in treating certain cancers. Pituitary Hormones and Their Control by the Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland andIts Relation to the Hypothalamus The Pituitary Gland Has Two Distinct Parts — The Anterior and Posterior Lobes. The pituitary gland (Figure 75-1), also called the hypophysis, is a small gland—about 1 centimeter in diameter and 0.5 to 1 gram in weight—that lies in the sella turcica, a bony cavity at the base of the brain, and is connected to the hypothalamus by the pituitary (or hypophysial) stalk. Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary Pars intermedia Posterior pituitaryHypophysial stalkMammillary body Usually, there is one cell type for each major hormone formed in the anterior pituitary gland. With special stains attached to high-affinity antibodies that bind with the distinctive hormones, at least five cell types can be differentiated (Figure 75-3). Table 75-1 provides a summary of these cell types, the hormones they produce, and their physiological actions. Cell Hormone Chemistry Physiological Action Somatotropes Growth hormone (GH; somatotropin) Single chain of 191 amino acids Stimulates body growth; stimulates secretion of IGF-1; stimulates lipolysis; inhibits actions ofinsulin on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism Corticotropes Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH; corticotropin) Single chain of 39amino acidsStimulates production of glucocorticoids andandrogens by the adrenal cortex; maintains size of zona fasciculata and zona reticularisof cortexnThyrotropesThyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH; thyrotropin) Table 75-1 Cells and Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary Gland and Their Physiological Functions IGF, insulin-like growth factor. Sinusoid Gamma( ) cellEpsilon ( )acidophil cell Delta ( ) basophil cell Alpha ( ) cell Beta ( ) cell Figure 75-3 Cellular structure of the anterior pituitary gland. (Redrawn from Guyton AC: Physiology of the Human Body, 6th ed.Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing, 1984.)Chapter 75 Pituitary Hormones and Their Control by the Hypothalamus 897 U n i t X IV Posterior Pituitary Hormones Are Synthesized by Cell Bodies in the Hypothalamus. The bodies of the cells that secrete the posterior pituitary hormones are not located in the pituitary gland itself but are large neurons,called magnocellular neurons, located in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus Controls Pituitary Secretion Almost all secretion by the pituitary is controlled by either hormonal or nervous signals from the hypothalamus. Indeed, when the pituitary gland is removed from its normal position beneath the hypothalamus and transplanted to some other part of the body, its rates of secretion of the different hormones (except for prolactin) fall to very low levels. Secretion from the posterior pituitary is controlled by nerve signals that originate in the hypothalamus and terminate in the posterior pituitary. In contrast, secretion by the anterior pituitary is controlled by hormones calledhypothalamic releasing and hypothalamic inhibitory hormones (or factors) secreted within the hypothalamus and then conducted, as shown in Hypothalamic-Hypophysial Portal Blood Vessels of the Anterior Pituitary Gland The anterior pituitary is a highly vascular gland with extensive capillary sinuses among the glandular cells. Almost all the blood that enters these sinuses passes first through another capillary bed in the lower hypothalamus. The blood then flows through small hypothalamichypophysialportal blood vessels into the anterior pituitary sinuses. Figure 75-4 shows the lowermost portion of the hypothalamus, called the median eminence, which connects inferiorly with the pituitary stalk. Small arteries penetrate into the median eminence and then additionalsmall vessels return to its surface, coalescing to form thehypothalamic- hypophysial portal blood vessels. hormones into the tissue fluids. Physiological Functions of Growth Hormone All the major anterior pituitary hormones, except for growth hormone, exert their principal effects by stimulating target glands, including thyroid gland, adrenal cortex, ovaries, testicles, and mammary glands. The functions ofeach of these pituitary hormones are so intimately concerned with the functions of the respective target glands that, except for growth hormone, their functions arediscussed in subsequent chapters along with the target glands. Growth hormone, in contrast to other hormones, does not function through a target gland but exerts itseffects directly on all or almost all tissues of the body. Growth Hormone Promotes Growthof Many Hormone Structure Primary Action on Anterior Pituitary Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) Peptide of 3 amino acids Stimulates secretion of TSH by thyrotropes Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) Single chain of 10 amino acids Stimulates secretion of FSH and LH by Gonadotropes Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) Single chain of 41 amino acids Stimulates secretion of ACTH by Corticotropes Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) Single chain of 44 amino acids Stimulates secretion of growth hormone by Somatotropes Growth hormone inhibitory hormone (somatostatin) Single chain of 14 amino acids Inhibits secretion of growth hormone by somatotropes Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH) Dopamine (a catecholamine) Inhibits synthesis and secretion of prolactin by lactotropes Table 75-2 Hypothalamic Releasing and Inhibitory Hormones That Control Secretion of the Anterior Pituitary Gland ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone; FSH, follicle-stimulating hormone; Growth Hormone Has Several Metabolic Effects Aside from its general effect in causing growth, growth hormone has multiple specific metabolic effects, including (1) increased rate of protein synthesis in most cells of the body; (2) increased mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue, increased free fatty acids in the blood, andincreased use of fatty acids for energy; and (3) decreased rate of glucose utilization throughout the body Enhancement of Amino Acid Transport Through the Cell Membranes. Growth hormone directly enhances transport of most amino acids through the cell membranes to the interior of the cells. This increases the amino acid concentrations in the cells and is presumed to be at least partly responsible for the increased protein synthesis Increased Nuclear Transcription of DNA to Form RNA. Over more prolonged periods (24 to 48 hours), growth hormone also stimulates the transcription of DNA in the nucleus, causing the formation of increased quantities of RNA. This promotes more protein synthesis and promotes growth if sufficient energy, amino acids, vitamins, and other requisites for growth are available. In the long run, this may be the most important function of growth hormone. Decreased Catabolism of Protein and Amino Acids. In addition to the increase in protein synthesis, there is a decrease in the breakdown of cell protein. A probable reason for this is that growth hormone also mobilizes largequantities of free fatty acids from the adipose tissue, and these are used to supply most of the energy for the body‘s cells, thus acting as a potent ―protein sparer.‖ Summary. Growth hormone enhances almost all facets of amino acid uptake and protein synthesis by cells, while at the same time reducing the breakdown of proteins. Excitation and Contraction of Smooth Muscle Contraction of Smooth Muscle In Chapters 6 and 7, the discussion was concerned with skeletal muscle. We now turn to smooth muscle, which is composed of far smaller fibers—usually 1 to 5 micrometers in diameter and only 20 to 500 micrometers in length. In contrast, skeletal muscle fibers are as much as 30 times greater in diameter and hundreds of times as long Types of Smooth Muscle The smooth muscle of each organ is distinctive from that of most other or ans in several ways: (1) physical dimensions, (2) organization into bundles or sheets, (3) response to different types of stimuli, (4) characteristics of innervation, and (5) function. Figure 8-1 Multi-unit (A) and unitary (B) smooth muscle. Unit II Membrane Physiology, Nerve, and Muscle 92 Contractile Mechanism in Smooth Muscle Chemical Basis for Smooth Muscle Contraction Smooth muscle contains both actin and myosin filaments, having chemical characteristics similar to those of the actin and myosin filaments in skeletal muscle. It does not contain the normal troponin complex that is required in the control of skeletal muscle contraction, so the mechanism for control of contraction is different. This is discussed in detail later in this chapter. Chemical studies have shown that actin and myosin filaments derived from smooth muscle interact with each other in much the same way that they do in skeletal muscle. Slow Cycling of the Myosin Cross-Bridges. The rapidity of cycling of the myosin cross- bridges in smooth muscle—that is, their attachment to actin, then release from the actin, and reattachment for the next cycle—is much slower Actin filaments Dense bodies Cell membrane Myosin filaments Figure 8-2 Physical structure of smooth muscle. The upper lefthand fiber shows actin filaments radiating from dense bodies. The lower left-hand fiber and the right-hand diagram demonstrate the relation of myosin filaments to actin filaments. Low Energy Requirement to Sustain Smooth Muscle Contraction. Only 1/10 to 1/300 as much energy is required to sustain the same tension of contraction in smooth muscle as in skeletal muscle. This, too, is believed to result from the slow attachment and detachment cycling of the cross- bridges and because only one molecule of ATP is required for each cycle, regardless of its duration. This sparsity of energy utilization by smooth muscle is exceedingly important to the overall energy economy of the body because organs such as the intestines, urinary bladder, gallbladder, and other viscera often maintain tonic muscle contraction almost indefinitely. Slowness of Onset of Contraction and Relaxation of the Total Smooth Muscle Tissue. A typical smooth muscle tissue begins to contract 50 to 100 milliseconds after it is excited, reaches full contraction about 0.5 second later,and then declines in contractile force in another 1 to 2 seconds, giving a total contraction time of 1 to 3 seconds. Maximum Force of Contraction Is Often Greater in Smooth Muscle Than in Skeletal Muscle. Despite the relatively few myosin filaments in smooth muscle, and despite the slow cycling time of the cross-bridges, the maximum force of contraction of smooth muscle is often greater than that of skeletal muscle—as great as 4 to 6 kg/ cm2 cross-sectional area for smooth muscle, in comparison with 3 to 4 kilograms for skeletal muscle. This great force of smooth muscle contraction results from the prolonged period of attachment of the myosin cross-bridges to the actin filaments. ―Latch‖ Mechanism Facilitates Prolonged Holding of Contractions of Smooth Muscle. Once smooth muscle has developed full contraction, the amount of continuing excitation ca usually be reduced to far less than the initial level yet the muscle maintains its full force of contraction. Further, the energy consumed to maintain contraction is often minuscule, sometimes as little as 1/300 the energy required for comparable sustained skeletal muscle contraction. This is called the ―latch‖ mechanism. The importance of the latch mechanism is that it can maintain prolonged tonic contraction in smooth muscle for hours with little use of energy. Stress-Relaxation of Smooth Muscle. Another important characteristic of smooth muscle, especially the visceral unitary type of smooth muscle of many hollow organs, is its ability to return to nearly its original force of contraction seconds or minutes after it has been elongated orshortened. For example, a sudden increase in fluid volume in the urinary bladder, thus stretching the smooth muscle in the bladder wall, causes an immediate large increase in pressure in the bladder Regulation of Contraction by Calcium Ions As is true for skeletal muscle, the initiating stimulus for most smooth muscle contraction is an increase in intracellular calcium ions. This increase can be caused in different types of smooth muscle by nerve stimulation of the smooth muscle fiber, hormonal stimulation, stretch of the fiber, or even change in the che ical environment of the fiber. Nervous and Hormonal Control of Smooth Muscle Contraction Although skeletal muscle fibers are stimulated exclusively by the nervous system, smooth muscle can be stimulated to contract by multiple types of signals: by nervous signals, by hormonal stimulation, by stretch of the muscle, and in several other ways. The principal reason for the difference is that the smooth muscle membrane contains many types of receptor proteins that can initiate the contractile process. Still other receptor proteins inhibit smooth muscle contraction, which is another difference from skeletal muscle. Therefore, in this section, we discuss nervous control of smooth muscle contraction, followed by hormonal control and other means of control. Neuromuscular Junctions of Smooth Muscle Physiologic Anatomy of Smooth Muscle Neuromuscular Junctions. Neuromuscular junctions of the highly structured type found on skeletal muscle fibers do not occur in smooth muscle. Instead, the autonomic nerve fibers that innervate smooth mus le generally branch diffusely on top of a sheet of muscle fibers, as shown in Figure 8-4. Outside Contraction Relaxation Figure 8-3 Intracellular calcium ion (Ca++) concentration increases when Ca++ enters the cell through calcium channels in the cellmembrane or the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). The Ca++ binds to calmodulin to form a Ca++-calmodulin complex, which then activates myosin light chain kinase (MLCK). The MLCK phosphorylates the myosin light chain (MLC) leading to contraction of the smooth muscle. When Ca++ concentration decreases, due to pumping of Ca++ out of the cell, the process is reversed and myosin phosphatase removes the phosphate from MLC, leading to relaxation. Varicosities Gap junctions Visceral Multi-unit Download 5.01 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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