Environmental performance reviews united nations

PART III: INTEGRATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL
CONCERNS INTO ECONOMIC SECTORS AND
PROMOTION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

 
 
87 
 
Chapter  6
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND
 PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES
6.1 
Introduction
Uzbekistan  and  the  majority  of  its  neighbouring
countries are situated in the Aral Sea internal drainage
basin,  where  they  share  transboundary  waters.  The 
scarcity  of  freshwater  is  currently,  and  will  be  in 
the  future,  the  greatest  environmental  problem,
since  water  is  the  key  resource  for  irrigating  low
productivity saline lands for agricultural production.
In-stream  disposal  of  collector–drainage  waters  and
inefficient  wastewater  purification  systems  result
in  a  deterioration  of  water  resources  quality  and  an 
increase in water salinity.
With  respect  to  the  availability  of  water  resources, 
Uzbekistan  is  located  in  quite  unfavourable  natural
conditions.  The  hydrographical  network  of  Central
Asia  has  a  very  uneven  distribution  of  water  bodies 
and  resources.  Since  only  about  10  per  cent  of 
the  water  resources  are  generated  in  the  country,
Uzbekistan  is  highly  dependent  on  the  inflow
of  waters  from  its  neighbouring  countries.  The
utilization  of  water  resources  without  taking  into
account the environmental capacity has also resulted 
in  water  quality  deterioration  and  a  tense  situation 
concerning drinking water supply.
Coinciding  with  the  second  Environmental
Performance  Review  (EPR)  of  Uzbekistan,  the
theme  of  the  United  Nations World Water  Day  2009 
was  “Shared  Water  –  Shared  Opportunities”,  with
particular  emphasis  on  transboundary  waters,  which 
is  drawing  attention  to  one  of  the  most  alarming
water crises not only in central Asia, but in the world 
– the Aral Sea catastrophe, partly caused by the water 
management in the Aral Sea basin of recent decades.
The  reasons  for  and  consequences  of  the  Aral  Sea 
catastrophe  are  well  known.  The  drying-up  of  the
Aral Sea has been accompanied by a wide range of
other  environmental,  economic  and  social  problems 
in  the  basin,  which  led  to  a  variety  of  diseases 
emerging  or  becoming  increasingly  common  among
the inhabitants, the degradation of valuable farmland,
traffic  routes  and  residential  areas,  unemployment,
impoverishment and migration.
6.2 
Water resources
The  distribution  of  water  resources  in  the  Aral  Sea 
internal  drainage  basin  is  extremely  uneven  and
determined  by  different  surface  flow  generation
conditions  that  are  favourable  in  the  mountainous 
areas  and  unfavourable  in  vast  plain  areas  occupied 
by deserts and semi-deserts.
The largest amount of surface water resources (about
90  per  cent)  is  generated  in  the  mountainous  areas
of  neighbouring  countries.  Internal  water  resources
comprise  lakes,  groundwater  resources,  rivers  and
the water reserves of glaciers. Large and small rivers,
as well as groundwater, are the main constituents of
available water resources in Uzbekistan (table 6.1).
The  main  rivers  are  the  Amu  Darya  River,  formed 
by the confluence of the Vakhsh and Pyandj Rivers,
the  Syr  Darya  River,  formed  by  the  confluence  of
the  Narin  and  Karadarya  rivers,  and  the  Chirchik 
River  near  Tashkent.  The  Amu  Darya  River  basin 
includes  the  Surkhandarya,  Sherabad,  Kashkadarya 
and  Zarafshan  rivers,  but  only  the  Kashkadarya 
and  Sherabad  Rivers  are  entirely  located  within  the 
territory of Uzbekistan. In addition to the main rivers,
there are over 17.7 thousand natural water streams in 
Uzbekistan. The Amu Darya River delta, with an area
of  700,000  ha,  is  a  natural  wetland  system  and  has 
been significantly changed by the Aral Sea crisis.
 
Surface water
The  Aral  Sea  and  its  littoral  zone  is  served  by  an
annual  inflow  from  transboundary  watercourses
within  the  approved  water  intake  limits  of  not  less 
than  14.5  km
3
/year.  This  represents  10  km
3
/year  for 
the  Amu  Darya  River  and  4.5  km
3
/year  for  the  Syr 
Darya  River.  Compliance  with  these  limits  depends 
on  water  availability  in  a  given  year  as  well  as  the
ability  to  implement  measures  aimed  at  the  rational 

88 
Part III: Environmental concerns in economic sectors and sustainable development
 
 
 
use of water by users. To protect the delta and coastal 
ecosystems  from  the  threat  of  damage,  Uzbekistan
envisaged the creation of artificially regulated ponds
to  replace  the  former  littoral  and  intra-delta  lakes 
and sea bays, along with a set of forest amelioration
measures.  For  this  purpose,  it  is  planned  that  up 
to  3.0  km
3
 of  the  country’s  available  water  in  an
average  year  will  be  released  from  the Amu  Darya
River  downstream  of  the  Kzyldjar  site. The  amount
of  released  water  varies  between  0.5  and  4  km
3
/year 
(2005) due to water availability.
There  are  approximately  500  lakes  in  Uzbekistan.
They  are  mainly  small  water  bodies  with  an  area 
of  less  than  1  km
2
.  Only  32  lakes  have  a  surface 
exceeding  10  km
2
. Winter  discharges  of  water  from
the Toktogul Reservoir resulted in increasing the area
of  the  Aydar  Arnasay  Lakes  System,  which  is  now 
the largest in Uzbekistan. With its area of 3,600 km
2
 
and its storage capacity of 42 km
3
, this lake exceeds 
the  water  reserves  of  all  other  reservoirs.  In  2008,  it 
was  added  to  the  list  of  the  Ramsar  Convention  on 
Wetlands  of  International  Importance  Especially  as 
Waterfowl Habitat.
Reservoirs play a very important role in the operation 
of water management systems in Uzbekistan, adding
to the capacity to cope with variability (hydrological
extremes)  and  to  control  water  resources.  Currently, 
there are 51 operating reservoirs in the country, which
are mainly used for irrigation purposes. Uzbekistan’s
largest  reservoirs  have  multipurpose  uses  and  are
intended  mainly  for  irrigation,  power  engineering
and industrial needs. The total rated storage capacity
of these reservoirs is 18.8 km
3
, and the active storage
capacity  is  14.8  km
3
.  These  man-made  wetland 
ecosystems  are  used  for  fishing.  The  ecological
problems  of  wetlands  are  caused  by  the  unstable 
regime  of  water  inflow  and  the  fact  that  they  are
poorly  protected.  As  a  result,  there  are  only  limited 
possibilities  to  conserve  the  habitat  and  biodiversity 
of this ecosystem.
River basin
S tem stream
S mall
Total
Syr Darya
10,490
9,425
19,915
1,590
2,600
24,105
Amu Darya
22,080
10,413
32,493
301
2,310
35,104
Total for Uzbekistan
32,570
19,838
52,408
1,891
4,910
59,209
River
Recommended 
for collector-
drainage use
Available 
water 
resources
Groundwater
Table 6.1: Breakdown of currently available water resources, million m
3
Source: State Committee for Nature Protection, 2008.
 
Groundwater
The  estimated  regional  groundwater  reserves  in
Uzbekistan  make  up  18,455  million  m
3
/year.  The 
total actual extraction is 7,749 million m
3
/year, which 
is about 42 per cent of the estimated reserves (table
6.2).
The  total  volume  of  natural  groundwater  in
Uzbekistan is estimated to be 24.35 km
3
. Out of this 
amount,  20.79  km
3
  lies  in  the  Quaternary  deposit, 
2.92  km
3
  in  the  Upper  Pliocene–Quaternary  deposit, 
and  0.46  km
3
  in  the  Upper  Cretaceous  deposit. 
Fresh  groundwater  is  concentrated  mainly  in  the
Fergana  Valley  (34.5  per  cent)  and  the  regions  of
Tashkent  (25.7  per  cent),  Samarkand  (18  per  cent),
Surkhandarya  (9  per  cent)  and  Kashkadarya  (5.5
per cent), with the rest being brackish or saline and
having  limited  potential  for  use.  For  the  remaining
areas, the freshwater total is about 7 per cent.
Currently,  the  groundwater  resources  of  Uzbekistan
can  provide  about  64  million  m
3
/day.  The  balance 
between groundwater extraction and formation in the
centralized extraction areas is observed by monitoring
wells.  The  trend  in  groundwater  abstraction  has
increased from 13.45 million m
3
/day in 2001 to 18.19 
million  m
3
/day  in  2008,  with  120  cities  and  district 
centres  covered.  Owing  to  reorganization  and  new
automatic devices, the number of observation stations 
was reduced by 40 per cent (from 1,850 to 1,074) in
2001.
The  regional  assessment  also  covers  transboundary
aquifers  from  the  Central Asian  countries. Although
the  studies  have  not  been  completed,  19  aquifers 
with  significant  resources  have  been  reported  as
transboundary,  bordering  or  shared  by  two  or  more
countries. Twelve of them are shared by Uzbekistan
and its neighbours. Transboundary groundwater plays
a significant role in the region.

 
Chapter 6: Sustainable management and protection of water resources 
89 
 
Since 2001, the observation of these 12 transboundary 
aquifers  has  become  increasingly  of  interest.  The
impact of industry on the transboundary groundwater
resources in Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan is
observed by 12 observation stations.
6.3 
Water quality and monitoring
Considering  the  close  relationship  between
environmental  conditions  and  water  availability, 
many national indicators have been developed for the 
assessment  of  water  quality.  Twenty-five  ecological
indicators  and  ten  subindicators  are  used  to  assess 
the  changes  in  the  state  of  water  resources,  water
consumption volumes in different economic branches, 
streamflow deficit rate and quality change patterns of
surface water and groundwater.
 
Surface water quality
The  pollution  of  surface  water  bodies  is  widespread 
and  results  in  the  considerable  pollution  of 
groundwater,  including  the  water  in  wells.  Water
pollution  plays  a  determining  role  in  the  increase
in  morbidity  rate  (kidney  disease,  oncological  and
acute infectious diseases), resulting in increased adult
and  child  mortality  rates.  Anthropogenic  impacts
also result in soil pollution (salinity, toxic pollution,
pesticides, residual quantities of fertilizers and heavy
metal pollution) and affects public health.
The current quality of the country’s water resources
remains  extremely  unsatisfactory.  The  highest  level
of  mineralization  and  pollution  is  observed  in  the
middle  and  lower  reaches  of  the  main  rivers.  This 
presents  a  serious  threat  to  the  life  and  health  of 
the  population  and  to  the  conservation  of  habitats. 
Polluted  water  comes  from  irrigated  agriculture  (78
Estimated regional groundwater
reserves 
18,455
Reserves confirmed for extraction 
7,796
Total actual extraction
7,749
Domestic water sup p ly
3,369
Industry
715
Irrigation
2,156
Vertical drainage wells
1,349
Pumping tests
120
Other
40
Table 6.2: Groundwater reserves and use, 
million m
3
/year
Source:  CAWATERinfo,  http://www.cawater-info.
net/aral/groundwater_e.htm  (accessed  in  August
2009)
per  cent),  industry  (18  per  cent)  and  the  municipal
sector (4 per cent). Agriculture is the main polluter of
surface  water  and  groundwater.  Although  industrial
effluents  are  slightly  smaller  in  volume,  they  are
more dangerous and harmful because of their level of
toxicity.
The  water  pollution  index  (WPI)  is  used  for
the  integrated  assessment  of  water  quality.  The
WPI  calculates  the  arithmetic  mean  value  of  six 
hydrochemical  indices  expressed  as  fractions  of 
the  maximum  allowable  concentration  (MAC).
These  indices  are  the  content  of  dissolved  oxygen,
biochemical  oxygen  demand  (BOD)  and  any  other
four  pollutants  with  the  highest  above  average
concentrations.  There  are  seven  classes  of  water 
quality according to the WPI, from I (very clean, WPI
< 0.3) to VII (extremely dirty, WPI > 10).
Overuse  of  agrochemicals  (nitrates,  phosphates,
pesticides)  results  in  the  intensive  pollution  of 
agricultural  lands  and  water  resources,  from  the
irrigated  fields  into  collector–drainage  waters.  Their
concentration  in  collector  water  exceeds  the  MAC 
values  for  domestic/drinking  water  supplies  by  5  to
10 times.
The  analysis  of  available  information  indicates  that 
the  WPI  for  almost  all  water  for  the  last  three  years 
has  changed  little  and  is  consistent  with  the  water
quality  class  III  (moderately  polluted).  A  small
number  of  water  bodies  corresponded  to  the  Class 
II water category (clean). These include the Chatkal,
Ugam, Aktashsay, Kyzylcha and Chimgansay Rivers
in  different  years  ranging  from  Class  II  (clean)
to  Class  III  (moderately  polluted)  due  to  heavy
anthropogenic pressures in the Chimgan tract.
 
Groundwater quality
In  the  east  of  Uzbekistan,  60  per  cent  of  the  total
water reserves are underground. In all but a few areas,
this water meets the Uzbek 2000 state standard (O´z
DST) 950 on drinking water.
Groundwater  reserves  in  the  western  part  of  the 
country (in the lower reaches of the Zarafshan River
and the western part of the Kashkadarya, Syr Darya, 
Amu  Darya  and  Central  Kyzyl  Kum  basins)  are
highly mineralized and hard. The fresh groundwater
lenses  formed  along  the  large  watercourses  (Amu
Darya  River  and  irrigation  canals)  and  used  to
supply  drinking  water  to  the  Khorezm  region  and
the Republic of Karakalpakstan do not meet national 

90 
Part III: Environmental concerns in economic sectors and sustainable development
 
 
 
standards  due  to  an  increase  in  the  last  10  to  15 
years  in  mineralization  and  hardness  (the  effects  of
irrigation).
Around  50  per  cent  of  the  total  volume  of 
groundwater  extraction  in  the  country  takes  place
in  the  Fergana  Valley.  As  in  the  other  regions,  the
depletion of underground reserves and degradation of
their quality due to anthropogenic impact are typical.
In order to better protect current and potential sources 
of drinking water in the country, the status of “area of
national  environmental  importance”  has  been  given
to  eleven  zones  of  fresh  groundwater  formation. As
a  result  of  anthropogenic  factors,  the  groundwater
quality continues to deteriorate in some regions of the
country, such as the Republic of Karakalpakstan. 
One  hundred  and  forty  hydrogeological  stations
in  almost  all  regions  have  observed  the  state  of
groundwater  since  1995.  The  monitoring  system
covers  99  national  groundwater  deposits,  reservoirs
and  tail  systems,  1,671  wells  and  43  springs  and
includes  1,074  observation  stations  with  automatic 
devices.  Also,  groundwater  extraction  is  monitored
for  7,000  major  water  users  for  different  purposes 
(drinking  water,  industry  and  irrigation),  with  the
supply  network  comprising  45,000  wells,  28,800  of
which are functioning and pumping 17.7 million m
3
/
year.  Since  2001,  the  investments  in  groundwater
monitoring  and  exploration  have  increased  by
15–20 per cent per year, all covered by a long-term
programme fully funded by the State (chapter 3).
Drinking  water  is  analysed  according  to  the
Uzbek  2000  state  standard  (O´z  DST)  on  drinking
water  using  modern  equipment  such  as  atom
absorption  spectroscopy,  high  performance  liquid
chromatography and enzymatic analysis (polymerase
chain reaction). For substances that can be analysed, 
the  World  Health  Organization  and  MAC  lists  are
used.  Since  2001,  additional  MACs  have  been 
introduced for mercury and chromium.
Out of the 133 mineral water wells with balneological
activity,  119  have  elevated  concentrations  of 
physiologically  active  compounds
1
,    salts,  gas
compositions  and  higher  temperatures,  including
81  sites  with  proven  operating  reserves  and  38
sites  with  probable  stocks  in  2005.  These  include 
resorts,  sanatoriums,  preventoriums,  rest  homes, 
physiotherapy  clinics,  factories  and  mineral  water 
bottling  plants.  Not  all  of  them  are  currently  in
operation,  because  a  number  of  water  facilities  need 
repair and new technical equipment.
6.4 
Water  use  and  status  of  the  water 
infrastructure
In  Uzbekistan,  general  water  use  is  based  on  the
shared  use  of  transboundary  and  internal  water 
resources  of  the  Aral  Sea  basin,  in  accordance  with 
the allocated approved limits, and varies between 45 
and 62 km
3
/year depending on the dryness of the year.
Over 90 per cent of this volume is used in irrigated
farming (table 6.3).
Consumer water use is based on the principle of equal 
water supply. Priorities in water delivery among the
various sectors of the economy are as follows:
Drinking and municipal water supply;
•
Industry;
•
Agricultural and rural water supply;
•
Water  users  approved  by  special  government
•
decision;
Sanitary releases to irrigation systems and small
•
rivers.
 
Irrigation
Out of the total volume of water, irrigation consumes
about  90  per  cent,  with  an  annual  consumption 
of  38.6–59.5  km
3
 (2002–2008)  depending  on  the
availability  of  water  resources.  Taking  into  account
1
 
Bromine, boron, iodine-silicon, radon, hydrogen sulphide
and iron. 
Source: State Committee for Nature Protection, 2008.
Table 6.3: Water resources use average, 2002–2006
Water resources use
km
3
%
Total, including:
55.1
100
Irrigated farming
49.7
90.2
Non-irrigation users, including:
5.4
9.8
Domestic and drinking water supply
3.4
6.1
Industry
1.2
2.2
Fishing sector
0.8
1.5

 
Chapter 6: Sustainable management and protection of water resources 
91 
 
the importance of agriculture to the national economy
and the fact that 16.579 million people in rural areas 
are  directly  dependent  on  water  for  their  livelihood, 
incomes  and  welfare,  it  is  extremely  important  to 
ensure an adequate water supply to this sector.
Currently,  the  irrigation  system  of  4.3  million  ha  of
land consists of 1,600 pump stations with a frequency 
range of 1 to 300 m
3
/s and 140,000 km of collectors, 
and requires an average of 57 km
3
 of water annually. 
The  irrational  and  inefficient  use  of  water  is  the
main  factor  restricting  the  development  of  irrigated
agriculture. The main reasons for low efficiency are
the  significant  losses  through  infiltration  from  the
unlined main canals, on-farm irrigation networks and
directly  through  field  irrigation  water  application.
Only  a  small  fraction  of  the  water  taken  from  its 
source is used advantageously.
Over  recent  years,  the  Cabinet  of  Ministers  has 
adopted  a  number  of  measures  aimed  to  increase 
the efficiency of the main canals, thereby improving
water delivery. Optimal approaches to irrigation and
water  management  mechanisms  at  various  levels
and  in  various  regions  of  the  country  are  being
demonstrated  by  international  organizations  and
donor countries.
A  combination  of  technical,  water  management  and
environment  protection  measures  is  envisaged  in
the  irrigated  agriculture  sector.  These  include  the
reconstruction  and  maintenance  of  the  irrigation
and drainage network in order to reduce losses from
canals  and  irrigated  fields,  water  conservation  and
an  increase  in  water  availability  in  districts  with 
low  supply.  About  60  billion  sum  (about  US$  41
million)  are  provided  by  the  public  budget  for  the
rehabilitation  and  reconstruction  of  the  main  canals 
and pump stations.
Under  the  “optimum”  scenario  (table  6.4),  the
efficiency of irrigation systems
2
  should  be  increased 
to 0.70 by 2010 and 0.75 by 2025. The efficiency of
irrigation  water  application  methods
3
  is  planned  to 
increase on average up to 0.69 in the near future, and
up to 0.74 by 2025.
 
Drinking water
Groundwater  is  mainly  used  for  domestic  and 
drinking  water  supplies  (173.5  m
3
/s),  irrigation
and  stock  water  development  needs  (70.5  m
3
/s)  and 
industrial and process water supplies (29.6 m
3
/s),  as 
shown in figure 6.1.
Groundwater  resources  provide  80  per  cent  of  the 
drinking  water  supply  to  the  population.  In  general,
2
 
The  efficiency  of  irrigation  systems  involves  various
components and takes into account losses during storage,
transport and application to irrigated plots.
3
 
Water application methods in Uzbekistan are as follows:
surface  irrigation;  localized  irrigation;  drip  irrigation;
sprinkler  or  overhead  irrigation;  centre  pivot  irrigation;
lateral move (side roll, wheel line) irrigation; subirrigation;
and manual irrigation.
SamAuto enterprise, Samarkand

92 
Part III: Environmental concerns in economic sectors and sustainable development
 
 
 
mill.ha
km
3
mill.ha
km
3
mill.ha
km
3
mill.ha
km
3
mill.ha
km
3
mill.ha
km
3
Amu Darya 
2.3
37.0
2.6
34.0
2.9
33.0
2.3
27.0
2.9
35.0
3.9
39.0
Syr Darya
1.8
22.0
1.9
21.0
2.0
20.0
1.9
22.0
2.0
20.0
2.3
20.0
Total 
4.1
59.0
4.5
55.0
4.9
53.0
4.2
49.0
4.9
55.0
6.2
59.0