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ALRI will maintain responsibility for agriculture, irrigation, and drainage throughout the
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- Local government Before ALRI, there were water management departments at the state oblast level and the district
- Water User Associations District level state water management organizations supply water to the gates of the former collective farms
- 4.2. S UB SECTOR PERFORMANCE 4.2.1. O VERVIEW
- The availability of pumped irrigation is also unpredictable due to erratic energy supplies.
- CHAPTER - 4 73 4.2.2. I MPACT OF WEAK IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
- CHAPTER - 4 74 Decline in productivity
- Irrigation schemes fall into a vicious downward spiral of degradation
- Reluctance to pay
- 4.2.3. I NVESTMENT NEEDS Irrigation is crucial to maintain rural livelihoods but the costs are high
- Improving irrigation infrastructure is vital to increasing agricultural productivity
- 4.2.4. F UNDING SOURCES State budget
- CHAPTER - 4 76 Donors
ALRI will maintain responsibility for agriculture, irrigation, and drainage throughout the transition to WRM, although the mechanisms for this seem yet to be established. The Water Sector Reform Programme lists functions that ALRI may assume. These include the development of goals and strategies for irrigation and efficient water use including the introduction of cost recovery for irrigation and drainage services. Further reforms are under development. The Reform Programme indicates that reforms “On Irrigation and Land Reclamation” have been drafted and a new Water Code in part to govern the relationships between the new institutions. ALRI receives funding from central and local government as well as user fees (see below) and is responsible for managing its budget and using resources, as the institution considers appropriate. There are number of departments under ALRI (see section 3 above). Local government Before ALRI, there were water management departments at the state oblast level and the district rayon level but functions and finances were confused. Oblvodkhoz departments managed financial issues related to maintenance and operation of irrigation systems and repairing of pump 50 Tajikistan: FAO Aquastat www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/tjk/index.stm - accessed 16th May 2016. 51 UNECE (2012) National Policy Dialogue on Integrated Water Resources Management in Tajikistan under the EU Water Initiative Roadmap http://www.unece.org/index.php?id=29981 accessed 7th March 2015 52 World Bank (2015) The Costs of Irrigation Inefficiency in Tajikistana 53 Water Sector Reform Programme of the Republic of Tajikistan for 2016-2025 – Unofficial Translation. CHAPTER - 4 71 and power equipment, capital repairing, procurement of equipment and construction materials. Jointly with oblast governments, they administered water policies within the oblast although their capacity has been limited. Meanwhile, rayvodkhoz departments had primary responsibility for water resources management within rayons, including planning of water resources use and protection, maintenance and operation of the irrigation and drainage network, and many other tasks to ensure sustainable water supply to local consumers. However, these are not responsible for water resources below tertiary canals as these come under the former soviet farms - although the boundaries are unclear. 54 Furthermore, these regional (oblvodhkhozs) and district (rayvodhkhozs) have been subject to a certain degree of control by local authorities (jamoat). Oblvodhkhozs financing came from the state budget, through the regional or local governor, rather than the Ministry budget. The result was that regional or local governors had control over oblast and rayon vodkhozes in addition to the Ministry; thus the Ministry has in practice limited control over actual operations of its subdivisions and had difficulty in enforcing policies at the sub national level. 55 Water User Associations District level state water management organizations supply water to the gates of the former collective farms. Once the supply reaches the farms, operations and maintenance as well as investment are the responsibility of the farmers, organized collectively in Water User Associations (WUAs). However, the state of on-farm infrastructure was in decline before the breakup of the Soviet Union and has continued to suffer in large part because the infrastructure is effectively ownerless with no source of funding for O&M. But the breakup of large farms has required additional investment to transport water along smaller canals to fields. The system has been further complicated by smaller fields and different cropping patterns, which has made it more difficult to maintain. 56 A 2006 Law led to the establishment of WUAs. By 2012 over 220 WUAs had been established. 57 These purchase water from district level organizations and sell it on to the WUA members with a charge to cover the costs of on farm irrigation systems, canals, drainage and other expenses. Some have formed a federation of WUAs. WUAs are formed on a secondary canal level and federate at primary canal level. However, capacity is weak and in 2013 it was reported that out of 258 WUAs in the country only around 50 were recognized as viable organizations. 58 54 UNECE (2012) National Policy Dialogue on Integrated Water Resources Management in Tajikistan under the EU Water Initiative Roadmap http://www.unece.org/index.php?id=29981 accessed 7th March 2015 55 Landell Mills (2013) Proposed Irrigation and Drainage Water Debt Resolution Roadmap Annex D: Provision of Technical Assistance to the Tajik Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Resources in Support of Institutional Reforms in the Water Sector, CONTRACT NUMBER: 2012/292193 56 UNECE (2012) National Policy Dialogue on Integrated Water Resources Management in Tajikistan under the EU Water Initiative Roadmap http://www.unece.org/index.php?id=29981 accessed 7th March 2015 57 Ibid 57 UNECE (2012) National Policy Dialogue on Integrated Water Resources Management in Tajikistan under the EU Water Initiative Roadmap http://www.unece.org/index.php?id=29981 accessed 7th March 2015 58 AHT/UNICON (2013) Republic of Tajikistan: Developing Water Resources Sector Strategies in Central and West Asia, Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report Project Number: 45353-001 (RETA 80150 CHAPTER - 4 72 There are major challenges including the following: 59 WUAs do not have property rights to the irrigation and drainage infrastructure Farmers do not see the benefits from WUAs or the justification for charges and some dehqan farms prefer to buy water directly from the district water management unit, effectively by-passing the WUA. WUA formation has developed through fragmented donor interventions with a “top down” approach and lack of local participation Unlike smaller scale village-based communal irrigation systems in SE Asia (where WUAs are more successful), irrigation in Central Asia was designed to serve large fields with complex pumping systems for multi-tier irrigated areas with sometimes more than 200 meters of lift. This presents administrative challenges. The MLRWR (the Ministry that preceded MEWR) established a support unit to assist WUAs and there has been assistance from national and international NGOs to increase capacity at the WUA level. 60 4.2. S UB SECTOR PERFORMANCE 4.2.1. O VERVIEW Small farmer-owned pumps (estimated to be around 2,000) are used extensively in some areas – often lifting water from scheme canals to adjacent lands and there are approx. 1,800 irrigation and drainage wells that pump groundwater thereby lowering the water table. 61 Many pump stations no longer function and primary drainage channels and irrigation canals have silted up due to lack of funds for cleaning. Regular maintenance of secondary and tertiary canals has stopped in part because it is not clear who is responsible for this. 62 Irrigation relies on hydraulic structures built in the middle of the last century, over 50% of which is worn out. With the breakup of the Soviet Union, farmers have been able to diversify crop production. But their ability to increase productivity is heavily constrained by the poor quality of the irrigation and drainage infrastructure. 63 The availability of pumped irrigation is also unpredictable due to erratic energy supplies. Farmers report that they do not know when water will be delivered. This is a particularly pressing problem in pumped areas where frequent power shortages mean that there is no time schedule on which farmers can rely. Thus, there is little to no coordination or systematic scheduling of water deliveries to individual farm fields. 64 Power outages are a big problem as pipelines, canals empty out, and it takes hours to refill them. Deliveries to farmers dwindle and then stop without notice and the distribution channels dry out. Farmers are suddenly without water. Once power is resumed and pumps are restarted it takes hours to re-establish flows. Unpredictable power supplies weaken efforts to improve irrigation. Incentives to organize WUAs to collectively manage farmlands and raise revenue for water bills are undermined where supplies are erratic. 59 Ibid. 60 Tajikistan: FAO Aquastat 2016 61 World Bank (2015) The Costs of Irrigation Inefficiency in Tajikistan 62 World Bank (2012) Tajikistan Second public employment for sustainable agriculture and water resources management project Project Appraisal Document Report No 72293-TJ. 63 Ibid. 64 AHT/UNICON (2013) Republic of Tajikistan: Developing Water Resources Sector Strategies in Central and West Asia, Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report Project Number: 45353-001 (RETA 8015) CHAPTER - 4 73 4.2.2. I MPACT OF WEAK IRRIGATION SYSTEMS Reduction in land used for agriculture The weak state of irrigation infrastructure means that the available land for agricultural production is reduced. Around 720,000 ha (85%) of the arable land is irrigated but only a small proportion of this (around 515,000 ha) is in use due to the deterioration of the irrigation and drainage infrastructure. About 40% of the irrigated lands are located in the areas of pumping stations and wells but due to wearing out of about a third of pump-and-compressor equipment, pressure pipelines, high cost of electricity and its deficit during the spring, pumps irrigate only about 262,000 hectares. 65 Land degradation Failing infrastructure and investment is having a significant impact in terms of land degradation. Land quality is reduced by salinization and waterlogging of irrigated land in lowland areas and this has increased because of inadequate drainage and low irrigation efficiency. 66 Drastic declines in operational funding previously used for cleaning and maintenance have resulted in the emergence of large areas with high water table and salinity, the result of weak drainage and applying too much irrigation water. 67 Thousands of hectares of irrigated land have been lost to irrigation due to the blocking or filling up of delivery canals with silt, and top soil is being eroded. Nevertheless, farm drainage networks lack meaningful ownership and control and lack of funding prevents meaningful reclamation. 68 According to a report for Landell Mills 69 disrepair of irrigation and drainage systems has led to large scale salinization of the land. It is estimated that about 90% of rain-fed croplands show signs of deterioration while 40% of them are severely degraded. Irrigation by some dehqan farm plots is performed with relatively large quantities of irrigation water, which results in increased erosion and high ground water levels, and ultimately land degradation. 70 In addition, erosion affects 97% of agricultural land and is a major threat to sustainable agriculture, particularly in hilly areas, which are subject to landslides. Furthermore, the country is vulnerable to natural disasters such as mud torrents and floods. Infrastructure and investment in bank protection dykes, channels and reservoirs play an important role in land protection. Climate change is expected to reduce the glaciated area and a sharp increase in glacier degradation has been observed in recent decades. 71 65 UNDP (2012) “Integrity Risk Assessment of Water Sector in the Republic of Tajikistan” Report prepared under the UNDP Project Integrity Risk Assessment in Water Sector, p. 69. 66 Tajikistan: FAO Aquastat www.fao.org\\nr\\water\\aquastat\\countries_regions\\tjk\\index.stm - accessed 16th May 2016 67 AHT/UNICON (2013) Republic of Tajikistan: Developing Water Resources Sector Strategies in Central and West Asia, Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report Proj ect Number: 45353-001 (RETA 8015 68 AHT/UNICON (2013) Republic of Tajikistan: Developing Water Resources Sector Strategies in Central and West Asia, Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report Proj 69 Landell Mills (2012) “Appendix A: Second revised water sector reforms strategy plan” Report prepared by Jelle Beekma, Consultant for Landell Mills Ltd. 70 UNDP (2015) Tajikistan: access to resources for human development National Human Development Report 71 Landell Mills (2012) “Appendix A: Second revised water sector reforms strategy plan” Report prepared by Jelle Beekma, Consultant for Landell Mills Ltd. CHAPTER - 4 74 Decline in productivity Water losses between the source and the fields depends on the conditions of the canal and vary from 50 to 65%. The irrigation systems “efficiency factor” is reported to be 55.2%. The efficiency of water resources use in irrigated agriculture is indicated by the income received per 1 cubic meter of water taken for irrigating agricultural crops or the amount of water used to receive one ton of yields. The productivity of water taken is very low in Tajikistan at US$ 0.2/m 3 . Erratic water supplies are a major constraint on production of higher value crops for markets. According to the FAOSTAT, in 2011 an approximate income generated by one hectare of irrigated land was around US$ 95.00 in 2011, while the cost of pumped irrigation for the same year was US$ 120.84. 72 Irrigation schemes fall into a vicious downward spiral of degradation followed by rehabilitation followed by even worse degradation and in Tajikistan there are pumping plants being constantly rebuilt while 40-50% of motors no longer operate at all. Many existing pumps are so worn out they eventually will need to be replaced and there needs to be a coordinated plan to replace them. The WB recommends that once needs are well defined ALRI should identify a single pump supplier to supply specified training, service and equipment at a reasonable price. 73 Reluctance to pay According to a survey of 600 farms for UNDP 74 the majority (around 80%) had a contract with the Ministry or a WUA. The survey found that about half of farm managers reported that they had access to irrigation water when it was needed and half did not. Problems reported included underfunding of irrigation and inadequate equipment and lack of specialist expertise to repair facilities. Poor financing and the eventual collapse of irrigation systems and equipment and shortage of irrigation water are mentioned as one of the main problems in providing irrigation water to dehqan farms. In theory, funds are collected from dehqan farms to cover the costs of irrigation water delivery. Ideally, calculations should cover all costs including for maintenance and servicing. However, the majority of respondents in the UNDP survey considered that the state systems were deplorable. The main problem for farmers was the condition of irrigation systems 4.2.3. I NVESTMENT NEEDS Irrigation is crucial to maintain rural livelihoods but the costs are high, especially for pumped (rather than gravity) fed irrigation, which relies on electricity. The costs of irrigation development and rehabilitation are higher in Tajikistan than in downstream countries mainly because of the need for pumping and erosion control 75 . In 2013 according to the World Bank, the annual cost of pump irrigation to the country was US$ 31.09 million. The cumulative cost for the period of 2005- 2013 was US$ 217.89 million or US$ 94.44 per ha. 76 Improving irrigation infrastructure is vital to increasing agricultural productivity and improving rural livelihoods and to ensure environmental sustainability. Estimates of investment costs for irrigation infrastructure vary widely. AHT / UNICON 77 cite a 2012 study commissioned by the 72 World Bank (2015) The Costs of Irrigation Inefficiency in Tajikistan 73 World Bank (2015) The Costs of Irrigation Inefficiency in Tajikistan 74 UNDP (2012) “Integrity Risk Assessment of Water Sector in the Republic of Tajikistan” Report prepared under the UNDP Project Integrity Risk Assessment in Water Sector 75 Tajikistan: FAO Aquasta - accessed 16th May 2016 76 World Bank (2015) The Costs of Irrigation Inefficiency in Tajikistan 77 AHT/UNICON (2013) Republic of Tajikistan: Developing Water Resources Sector Strategies in Central and West Asia, Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report Project Number: 45353-001 CHAPTER - 4 75 European Union that estimated the total cost of rehabilitating all existing irrigation systems to be about US $881 mln. and with new maintenance, they estimate that it will cost over $1bn to rehabilitate the main and secondary irrigation infrastructure. The World Bank estimates that investments of around U$ 350 per ha would increase the volume of pumped water from 1869 mln. m 3 to 2090 mln. m 3 thereby making it possible to irrigate the entire command area (i.e. 280,850 ha - a 27% increase on the current level). Such a budget will likely need to be doubled to bring the irrigation systems to a level of “moderate manageability”. Improving pumping plant efficiency will be expensive (perhaps US$ 350 mln. initial cost) much greater than can be achieved via any electricity savings. Meanwhile, scheme operators are only just able to keep the pumps running and there is little funding to invest in the actual control of water and improving the performance of the schemes. 78 Irrigation systems are over 50% worn out. These systems must be completely rehabilitated which will cost about US$ 746 mln. 79 Consultants for the World Bank 80 recommended replacing the working pumps and motors with efficiency standardized units with sand resistant metals, and excellent regional pump/ motor repair facilities. At each pump station one pump should be replace by three smaller (1/3 capacity) pumps to improve the matching of flows to the downstream pumping plant. 4.2.4. F UNDING SOURCES State budget Since the Soviet era, the annual budget for the Ministry responsible for irrigation has declined from US$ 160 mln. to less than US$ 10 mln. In 2012, it was US $9.4 mln. The amount budgeted for energy costs was US $0.2 mln, which is a fraction of the cost, which was US$ 7.4 mln. This consistent funding shortfall has resulted in an accumulated debt for energy, which in 2012 was US$ 44.7 mln. 81 The government supports pump irrigation through direct and indirect subsidies to both agriculture and energy sectors. The amount of subsidy is reported to have been steadily increasing since 2005. In 2013, the government’s contributions to ALRI’s pump irrigation budget of US$ 14.31 million consisted of one- time direct subsidy at US$ 2.72 million for the O&M of the infrastructure and US$7.17 million from state budget funds for ALRI. The government also provides support in the form of power price subsidies with the power tariff for pump irrigation set at a discounted rate. Discounts have been around 70% since 2010. 82 Annual expenditure for O&M of irrigation and drainage is estimated at US$68.8m. 83 According to a 2015 report by the World Bank, 84 “expenditure on irrigation for O&M fell from US$ 88/ha in 1990 to US$ 14.3/ha in 2003. The requirements just for O&M were estimated in 2004 by ADB at US$ 21-28/ha for gravity systems and US$ 60-150/ha in pumped systems. Using the present irrigated area of 515,000 ha and annual expenditures of US$ 23 million (including US$ 4.7 million unpaid electrical bills), the current average cost for all irrigation expenses (including O&M) are approximately US$ 45/ha.” 78 World Bank (2015) The Costs of Irrigation Inefficiency in Tajikistan 79 GWP (2013) National stakeholder consultations on water: Supporting the Post-2015 Development Agenda, Global Water Partnership, Central Asia and Caucasus. 80 World Bank (2015) The Costs of Irrigation Inefficiency in Tajikistan 81 AHT/UNICON (2013) Republic of Tajikistan: Developing Water Resources Sector Strategies in Central and West Asia, Technical Assistance Consultant’s Report Project Number: 45353-001 (RETA 8015) 82 World Bank (2015) The Costs of Irrigation Inefficiency in Tajikistan 83 Tajikistan: FAO report - accessed 16th May 2016 84 World Bank (2015) The Costs of Irrigation Inefficiency in Tajikistan CHAPTER - 4 76 Donors Donor funding to ALRI is disbursed through Project Implementation Units (PIUs) which operate independently of government with separate accounting and management although the government is responsible for technical monitoring and control of the quality of the work. Government provides contributions in kind (mainly through the provision of offices, electricity and other non-monetary assets). PIUs are located in Water management centers for the rivers Syrdarya, the office of which is located in Khujand; Panj and Kafirnigan, their offices located in Dushanbe (in the ALRI’s building). These projects have both “soft” (legislation, institutional building and the implementation of specific projects) and “hard” (building fixed assets, components). Download 0.75 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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