Handbook of psychology volume 7 educational psychology
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- Focus on Relational and Motivational Processes in Schooling
- Attention to Gender
- Significance of Early Childhood and Developmental Research
- Theoretical Advances 615
- Advances in Neurobiology
- Impact of Technology
- Value of Continuing Debates
Theoretical Advances 613 The increased integration of cognitive, self-regulatory, and motivational research has led to ecologically valid interpreta- tions of academic and classroom learning. The conclusion to be drawn from this body of work is that it is not enough to be behaviorally engaged in learning; students also must be cogni- tively and motivationally engaged for deeper understanding and learning to occur. We agree with both Pintrich and McCormick (both in this volume), who suggest that future researchers will increasingly identify key self-regulatory and personal motivational constructs related to academic achieve- ment and competencies. Future work will focus on how metacognition, self-regulation, and motivation differ across individuals, across tasks, and with the type of skill assessed. Continued efforts will strive to clarify the domain specificity or generality of such skills. Furthermore, because we know little about how such processes change over the lifetime, there will be an emphasis on developmental shifts in metacognition, self- regulation, and motivation and how these processes emerge in young children (see chapter by Schunk & Zimmerman in this volume; Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997; and Zimmerman, 2000, for more specifics on such developmental progressions). Studies also will be designed to assess how such processes are exemplified in practical life tasks over time—for example, how adults make choices to balance personal and professional goals. Finally, continuing efforts to clarify the interrelation- ships between these constructs and cognitive outcomes will help determine the reciprocal contributions of academic suc- cess, metacognitive awareness and regulation, motivational intent, and personal goal setting. Focus on Relational and Motivational Processes in Schooling Contemporary research on classroom learning has established the importance of relational processes between children and adults in predicting success and risk in school settings. In the quest for understanding student learning and adjustment, so- cially mediated goal structures and relationships that students have while in school with other students and adults have taken on new prominence. The inclusion of two chapters on these issues (see chapters by Pianta, Hamre, & Stuhlman and by Wentzel in this volume) is a sign of the vast literature that has accumulated on these topics over the last decade. Educational psychologists have demonstrated that child- teacher relationships have a positive and reciprocal effect on students’ learning, achievement, enjoyment, involvement, and school engagement and on teachers’ sense of well-being, efficacy, job satisfaction, and retention (Pianta, 1999). Work on classroom relationships and teaching processes has been strongly influenced by developmental systems theory (Lerner, 1998). In this framework, student-adult and student- student relationships are viewed as interrelated units func- tioning reciprocally to motivate successful adaptation and development (see chapter by Pianta, Hamre, & Stuhlman in this volume). Students’ beliefs about relationships in school are strongly associated with general feelings about the school climate, which in turn contributes to greater trust in and use of teachers and peers as sources of support. Teachers rated by students as demonstrating greater care are more effective in structuring and managing classroom processes and tend to set higher goals for student performance (see chapter by Wentzel in this volume). The implication of these findings is that pos- itive student-teacher relations reciprocally influence class- room expectations and behaviors. Exposure to positive adult and peer interpersonal relationships also can motivate achievement and coping in behaviorally at-risk students (see chapter by Walker & Gresham in this volume). That such re- lationships play a central role in overall school climate has led some to suggest that teaching may require interpersonal involvement at a level higher than that of most other profes- sions (Calderhead, 1996). Educational psychologists also have been at the forefront in identifying what motivates and mediates individuals’ goals for leaning and the classroom or school factors that support and promote the expression of these personal attributes (see chapter by Wentzel in this volume). Critical student attitudes and beliefs and the fit between a student’s social goals and those of teachers and peers are strongly related to social and school adjustment. In the case of students who evidence se- vere behavioral problems, it is now known that impaired relations between students’ social goals and academic ac- complishments may contribute to escalation of violence (see chapter by Walker & Gresham in this volume). Moreover, studies of socially adjusted versus less adjusted individuals point to differences in their ability to set and achieve goals that are sanctioned by the larger community as valuable and desirable. Successful students have been described as having socially integrative (helpfulness, sharing), learning (persistence, intrinsic motivation, interest), and performance (completing assignments, organization) characteristics (see chapter by Wentzel in this volume). Students identified as gifted are more likely to express these behaviors and also are more likely to set goals that correspond to teacher objectives (see chapter by Olszewski-Kubilius in this volume). In the future, researchers will examine comprehensive the- oretical models of school- and home-based relations to better understand the links between social motivation, prosocial be- havior, and academic performance. A broader array of social goals related to school adjustment will be investigated be- yond those associated with academic achievement. Individual 614 Future Perspectives in Educational Psychology and contextual factors that affect students’ goal selection and pursuit will be identified. Continued work will focus on how multiple personal goals are negotiated and coordinated to guide social as well as intellectual development (Wentzel, 1998). Although available data support the developmental systems perspective of teacher-child relations, the means by which such information is transmitted in schools must be more clearly elaborated. Pianta, Hamre, and Stuhlman (this volume) predict that such evaluations will require compre- hensive means of assessing quality and types of relationships. This process would involve in-depth analyses of mechanisms that affect relational exchanges and relationships, with the use of multiple methods, across multiple occasions and con- texts, and over extended periods of time. Comprehensive evaluations would allow researchers to map out under what conditions certain motivational goals will become adaptive or maladaptive (see chapter by Wentzel in this volume). Finally, greater knowledge of the interdependence of interpersonal relations, motivational systems, and personal goals will be used to improve our ability to serve different populations of students. Studies involving students with se- vere learning and behavior difficulties will be designed to determine whether family and community influences on motivation and learning can be enhanced or positively modi- fied by schooling experiences. Prevention efforts and inter- ventions with at-risk students will be enhanced through a greater understanding of how such constructs relate to in- creased social competence and self-determination and con- tribute to improved group approval and peer acceptance (see chapters by Siegel and by Walker & Gresham in this volume). Reschly (this volume) similarly predicts that the field of school psychology will place more emphasis on early identi- fication, which in turn will lead to mutually supportive home, school and community interventions to enhance academic achievement, prosocial behavior, and emotional regulation. Attention to Gender Educational psychologists interested in studying classroom and instructional processes increasingly have stressed the im- pact of gender in understanding motivation, cognition, and interpersonal classroom processes. A growing number of studies have identified specific curriculum content, class- room interactions, and school climates that promote gender equity (see chapter by Koch in this volume). Gender equity in education refers to educational practices that are fair and just toward both females and males. This work has led to teacher training efforts designed to promote more equitable classroom learning environments. Such training specifically targets attitudinal changes through increased awareness and knowledge of hidden curriculum and gender-differentiated instruction. Current researchers view uniform or one-size-fits-all re- sponses to create equitable classroom climates as oversimpli- fications. Instead, recent attempts to develop more equitable environments are designed to uncover the needs and social is- sues behind gendered behavior rather than simply to ensure equal treatment. These approaches seek to level the playing field by encouraging all children to be contributors to class environments, which can lead to different (vs. similar) expe- riential offerings for girls and boys. Future researchers will continue to focus on what it means and how to best achieve gender equity in daily classroom interactions and curriculum choice considerations and how to best prepare teachers in this area. Significance of Early Childhood and Developmental Research Although much of the work in educational psychology has focused on kindergarten through Grade 12, educational psychologists have begun to play a larger role in studying preschool learning and early childhood settings. This litera- ture has helped to further illuminate the significance of the birth-to-five period and the role of play in early literacy, mu- sical, artistic, and mathematical skills and in affective and social development (see chapter by Goelman et al. in this volume). The increasing contributions of educational psy- chology researchers in this area reinforced the decision to include a chapter focused exclusively on early childhood in this volume. Educational researchers have increasingly sought to ex- amine developmental progressions in many of the domains reviewed here. For example, motivational researchers are seeking to isolate the complex influence of the task, current situational characteristics, past relational experiences, prior beliefs, and ongoing beliefs that develop during a task (see chapters by Pintrich; by Pianta, Hamre, & Stuhlman; and by Wentzel in this volume). One general observation is that there may not be a single developmental trajectory to explain how certain abilities unfold. Different trajectories of devel- opment may arise depending on individual and contextual influences. These ideas were expressed by Goelman and his colleagues (this volume), who distinguished between newer map versus stage theories of development. In the former, in- teractive developmental processes are studied by examining a repertoire of skills over time to determine how a wide range of expressions and representations develop depending on Theoretical Advances 615 reciprocal individual and environmental factors. Examina- tions of such developmental progressions also are prevalent in the literature on early literacy and mathematics learning (see chapters by Pressley and by Lehrer & Lesh, respectively, in this volume). Most authors, however, point to the clear need for more extensive examinations of how key constructs develop over time and are influenced by contextual factors. As McCombs (this volume) points out, much more work is needed to inte- grate concepts of learning and development with evolving processes and theories of education and teaching. Instead of proposing tight developmental sequences and stages, future educational psychology researchers will need to examine a range of different acquisition repertoires; this will entail work directed beyond individual or group progressions to instead look for continuums of diverse abilities and differential con- texts that promote development. It also will require an even greater emphasis on early childhood populations and a commitment to studying key constructs across a wider range of ages.
Contemporary neurobiological theories are poised to have a substantial influence on theories of learning and cognition in the future. Early studies that related basic laboratory proce- dures (i.e., measures of glucose metabolism, speed of nerve conduction) with formal psychometric tests or learning tasks have been replaced with more sophisticated assessments of brain functioning and neural processing and with complex testing of cognitive and learning abilities (see chapter by Sternberg in this volume). It may be that analogous research with more sophisticated laboratory tools—like the early stud- ies of brain-behavior relationships undertaken in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s to provide researchers with an understand- ing of brain functioning and psychopathology—can provide insights into learning and cognitive skills. There also has been a strong emphasis on understanding early neurobiological influences on development. Examina- tions of such interactions were found in many educational ap- plications reviewed here but most specifically in studies of language and literacy development (Shaywitz, 1996). The role of phonological awareness (i.e., the ability to segment the speech stream into its constituent parts) in early literacy acquisition is a good example of research that jointly empha- sizes developmental and neurological processes (see chapters by Goelman et al. and by Pressley in this volume). Motiva- tional researchers have increasingly bridged biological, cog- nitive, and affective constructs (see chapter by Pintrich in this volume). We will continue to see even stronger ties between ongoing theory building within a domain and the growing knowledge base in genetics and neurobiology. Such integra- tion will reduce competing notions of underlying biological, cognitive, and emotional psychological processes and will help to more precisely determine how these interact to affect learning. Impact of Technology Educational psychologists increasingly have been involved in investigations of learning and instruction within emerging media and technology environments (see chapter by Goldman- Segall & Maxwell in this volume). Contemporary research has focused less on how individual cognition is affected by technology and more on examining effects with technology. New models of computer instruction view computers as flexi- ble and student-directed versus static and expert-driven learn- ing approaches. Prior advances in software technology that originally stressed constructivist processes to make learning and thinking processes more concrete have been broadened to allow children to add animation to pictures, rotate graphics, and link hypertext to audio and video information. Technolog- ical and software advances now allow learning to occur on de- mand with simulations, visualizations, and concept mapping. Students can manipulate variables and instantly see results, can participate in setting up dynamic interactive systems, and can apply sophisticated data analysis tools. Each of these ad- vances provides new avenues for researchers to investigate how students design, construct, and understand complex sys- tems and representations in mathematics and science. Although investigations of individual learning benefits with educational technology will continue, there are likely to be fewer investigations of simple outcomes or isolated per- son effects. Recent studies of computer learning are focused on how students make sense of complex systems, how learn- ing occurs during jointly constructed computer interactions, and how teachers can mediate and expand the effects of technology—especially regarding mathematical learning (also see chapter by Lehrer & Lesh in this volume). New soft- ware programs allow learners to explore problems in cooper- ation with others and not just to concretize and experience problems. It now is possible for users to engage in sophisti- cated real-time data sharing processes whereby a variety of learners contribute to and compare points of view and collab- orate on gathering and constructing knowledge. Goldman- Segall and Maxwell (this volume) review several ongoing investigations in which learners across the nation and world concurrently collect, communicate, and analyze data from 616 Future Perspectives in Educational Psychology large-scale environmental projects. These programs are capa- ble of tracking how communities of students make decisions and open up a new methodology for exploring formative learning. Advances in software and technology will continue to broaden our ability to investigate how students think and con- struct knowledge individually and in collaboration with others (Brown & Duguid, 2000). In the twenty-first century, these advances are likely to enhance our ability to study distributed and situated learning and subsequently our understanding of learning with technology. Goldman-Segall and Maxwell (this volume) have proposed a new perspectivity theory for study- ing learning processes that occur when a community of minds is engaged in real-life inquiry using computers. Within this framework, computers are viewed as a partner in the learning process and as a tool that encourages thinking in relationship with others. In effect, synchronous telecommunication capa- bilities that allow groups of learners to be networked for collaborative inquiry may improve our knowledge of cooper- ative partnerships in ways that were never before possible. By stressing interpersonal relationships, these programs suggest a move to blend studies of cognitive components with affective components of online learning. Individuals learning through new media contexts and en- gaging in collective learning discussions will provide exciting new means to study learning and cognition, self-regulation, motivation, affect, and relationships across time, place, and culture. Technology and media advances have the potential of creating unique and previously unfathomable research oppor- tunities in educational psychology as future researchers inves- tigate new approaches, configurations, and environments for studying learners and learning. Expanding on Papert’s (1980) ideas, Goldman-Segall and Maxwell (this volume) suggest that in the future we must develop learning environments that encourage diverse styles of studying and understanding. Value of Continuing Debates Notwithstanding the remarkable advances observed across the many domains reviewed here, clashes in theoretical para- digms and differences in what constitutes evidence will con- tinue to influence future research within the field. Several examples clarify how such ongoing controversies are posi- tive influences that have helped to broaden our knowledge base and have led to new insights regarding relevant contexts for learning and teaching. Debates about the relative importance of mastery over per- formance goals and other self-regulatory constructs have led to the identification of alternative performance goals that dif- ferentially affect student achievement. One such externalized goal that focuses on a student’s desire to outperform others to get higher grades has been found to contribute to higher lev- els of academic performance. Researchers also have sought to clarify debates concerning the domain or situational speci- ficity of motivational constructs such as self-efficacy or con- trol beliefs. Research motivated by such debates has led to greater specificity of key motivational constructs and con- structs of self related not only to generalized achievement but also to motivation and self-regulatory activities, such as choice, judgments of value, cognitive engagement, and task persistence (see chapters by Pintrich and by Schunk & Zim- merman in this volume). This work has important implica- tions concerning qualifications for how to help students set personal goals and for how to provide specific motivational feedback that will promote both short- and long-term acade- mic and social competencies. That individual beliefs, ex- pectancies, and attributions can be changed through teacher feedback is an especially exciting area of future research for students exhibiting learning and behavioral dis-abilities (see chapters by Siegel and by Walker & Gresham in this volume). The controversy over the domain specificity or generaliz- ability of cognitive abilities has led to studies that move be- yond this simple dichotomy. Researchers have sought to determine how learning and metacognitive processes emerge initially within specific domains of knowledge and then ad- vance to broader general abilities across domains (see chapter by McCormick in this volume for further elaboration of these issues). In the cooperative learning literature, there are contin- uing debates as to what affects motivation for learning and how incentives are employed to structure or influence learning (see chapter by Slavin et al. in this volume). These debates have contributed to studies that move beyond whether greater learn- ing occurs with individual as well as collective learning goals. Slavin et al. have called for more focused studies to determine situations in which group goals and individual accountability may not both be necessary. Such hypothesized occasions might be when students are working collaboratively on higher level cognitive tasks that lack a single right answer, those in which students voluntarily join groups and are already strongly motivated to perform, or in highly structured situations in which learning is likely a result of simply participating. An- other context in which individual accountability may not be as essential is during communal learning groups composed of homogeneous ethnic minority members who already demon- strate high levels of interdependence functioning (Hurley, 1997). There is a trend to move beyond proving simple di- chotomies; research now seeks to examine multiple paths between personal goal structures and various cognitive, self- regulatory, and achievement outcomes (see chapters by
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