Handbook of psychology volume 7 educational psychology
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- PRACTICE INITIATIVES
- Strategies for Instruction
- Tensions in Designing Instruction
- Practice Initiatives 623
- Teacher Impact and Preparation
- Technology and Its Role in Practice
Practice Initiatives 621 learning outcome assessments would involve a range of mem- ory, comprehension-monitoring, motivation, goal-setting, and adult-student or peer-student relationship variables (see chapter by Slavin et al. in this volume). Calls also were made to merge what we know across the domains of intelligence, cognition, metacognition, self-regulation, motivation, and affect (see chapters by Mayer, by McCormick, by Pintrich, and by Sternberg in this volume). Finally, Pintrich (this volume) sug- gests that synthesis and appraisals of generalized constructs over extended periods and divergent situations would enhance our knowledge of the enduring, global nature versus the domain specificity of motivational beliefs.
The work of educational psychologists has transformed and inspired educational practice and policies and has stimula- ted dynamic instructional strategies, curriculum innovation, and teacher education programs. Educational psychologists also have contributed to high standards of credible pedagogi- cal evidence. Although important cautions have been made against blind translations to practice, educational psycholo- gists have been at the forefront in helping to make this im- portant knowledge base more visible and accessible to educators and educational policy makers in the future.
Instructional innovations for diverse learners and settings have been developed through comparative studies of expert learners engaged in cognitive pursuits, controlled experi- ments that demonstrate gains in performance following in- struction, and observations of exceptional teachers in classrooms in which students prosper and develop advanced academic skills. Content-area instruction in mathematics, science, reading, and writing has consistently been bolstered by research on cognitive, metacognitive, and self-regulatory strategies that focuses on how students monitor, modify, and adapt ongoing processes during learning (see chapters by Mayer, by McCormick, and by Schunk & Zimmerman in this volume). Instruction has also been influenced by sociocul- tural studies of teaching processes that foster critical argu- ment, cooperative learning, and individual expression (see chapters by John-Steiner & Mahn, by Lehrer & Lesh, and by Pressley et al. in this volume). Work on motivational and so- cial relational strategies also have been forwarded that can deeply influence learning behavior in the classroom (see chapters by Pintrich; by Pianta et al.; by Wentzel; and by McCombs in this volume). Several examples of this burgeon- ing literature are noted in the following discussion. Emerging strategy research in mathematics emphasize how individual students think about concepts like units of measure and also how students collectively come to partici- pate in mathematical conversations and arguments in a class- room (see chapter by Lehrer & Lesh in this volume). Researchers of mathematics learning have moved beyond strategies of early number and arithmetic learning; they now include investigations of central mathematical concepts in geometry and measurement and data modeling and statistics. There is a strong focus on how students form mathematical habits of mind by learning symbols and arguments. The em- phasis is now on teaching formats that emphasize multiple forms of mathematics rooted in practical activity and adult- or peer-guided activity and that foster the growth of mathemati- cal reasoning (see chapters by Lehrer & Lesh and by Mayer in this volume). Similar strategy approaches are used exten- sively within technological environments to foster problem- solving and science inquiry (see chapter by Goldman-Segall & Maxwell in this volume). Work on literacy development is an excellent example of psychological theory and research informing meaningful ed- ucational practice (see chapter by Pressley in this volume). Instructional strategies in phonemic awareness have a sub- stantial impact on reading immediately and several years later in comparison to other cognitive and conceptual train- ing. Context and instructional strategies to promote infant and toddler prelanguage (i.e., babbling, repetition, rhythm, and tonal play) and communicative ability have focused on important literacy prerequisites embedded in functional adult-child relational strategies (see chapter by Goelman et al. in this volume). As one example, early childhood re- searchers have established that singing to infants without (vs. with) words and using only repetitive neutral syllables appear to concentrate their auditory attention, leading to better vocal reproductions. The effectiveness of broad repertoires of read- ing comprehension strategies also have been studied that encourage students to transact with text, construct interpreta- tions with other readers, and react to multiple perspectives (Pressley & El-Dinary, 1997). Integrative strategies to enhance writing have been devel- oped that focus on planned, higher-order messaging processes (also see chapters by McCormick and by Mayer in this volume) and connections between discussion, collabora- tion, reading, and writing (Flower et al., 1990). There also is a growing emphasis on dialogue, argument, writing, and in- scription strategies that highlight the integral connections be- tween literacy and mathematical thinking processes (see chapter by Lehrer & Lesh in this volume). One area for future collaborative endeavors is the blending of effective strategies for reading, writing, and mathematics with special attention given to systems of inscription used in mathematics and 622 Future Perspectives in Educational Psychology literacy that help students integrate their cognitive and social resources to better develop arguments (see chapter by Lehrer & Lesh in this volume). Motivational strategies have been forwarded that posi- tively influence self-regulation of thinking and learning. Learning engagement and achievement are thought to occur best when children are given the choice and control to create personally meaningful outcomes (see chapters by McCombs and by Pintrich in this volume). Strong evidence exists to confirm the impact of teacher attitudes, characteristics, and connections with students that promote more persistent acad- emic engagement and greater literacy and mathematics per- formance (see chapters by Pianta et al. and by Wentzel in this volume). New strategies of cooperative learning have con- tributed to our knowledge of how to present and design group instruction to effectively enhance learning and motivation for a variety of learners and contexts (see chapters by Schunk & Zimmerman and by Slavin et al. in this volume). Although tremendous gains have been made in the design of effective instructional strategies across the domains of re- search reviewed here, evidence of significant short-term im- provements must be bolstered in the future by evidence of maintenance and generalization to group and classroom set- tings and across domains of learning. Work is needed to de- sign integrative and holistic strategies to enhance cognitive and information-processing mechanisms as well as social, motivational, and interpersonal processes that underlie human performance. Greater understanding of student learn- ing and development would also benefit from collaborative endeavors across content areas on the role of conjecture, proof, and argument in classroom discussion and in the for- mation of relationships that promote higher engagement and motivation. Progress in these areas will add to our ability to design more effective strategies for instruction that capitalize on students’ strengths and compensate for weaknesses. Con- tinued studies of exemplary practices will help guide princi- ples of instruction and will lead to instruction better matched to meet the needs of the diverse student populations of the twenty-first century. Tensions in Designing Instruction Current debates exist as to whether it is better to teach critical strategies or to facilitate a student’s discovery of them. Un- doubtedly the role of systematic instruction in identified skills and abilities has long been a contentious issue in many areas of study (Shulman & Keislar, 1966). Tensions between advocates of direct versus indirect instruction are present in discussions of content learning, self-regulatory skills, and instructional approaches for reading and writing. On the one hand is the notion that abilities are contained within the child as an innate need to grow and explore, and such abilities will unfold given supportive environments without direct inter- vention. Constructivist theories posit that the learner actively and consciously engages in building his or her own knowl- edge base. On the other hand is the view that more structured pedagogical approaches can nurture opportunities for learn- ing and development. Contemporary researchers appear to have moved from a focus on settling this argument in an either-or, all-or-none fashion to a more centrist focus. Increasingly, evidence suggests that a multitude of cognitive and self-regulatory processes develop more successfully over time with some di- rect and systematic environmental intervention. Arguments from a middle-ground stance are reflected in contemporary views of play in education. Children are hypothesized to construct their understanding of the world through freely ex- pressed forms of play but also through play activity facili- tated by teachers, who create a scaffolded environment for inquiry (see chapter by Goelman et al. in this volume). This centrist view also is reflected in contemporary calls for bal- anced literacy instruction, in which explicit instruction in critical phonological and language skills is embedded within meaningful, contextualized, and functional contexts (see Pressley, 1998; also see chapter by Pressley in this volume). Finally, greater recognition of the heterogeneity within iden- tified groups of exceptionalities also have pointed to the need to recognize the differential effectiveness of various learning and instructional approaches (Gagne, 1998; also see chapter by Siegel in this volume). The consensus view was apparent across many chapters. Vygotskiian theoretical notions of adult guidance, scaffold- ing, and guided learning within the zone of proximal devel- opment (Vygotsky, 1978; Wertsch, 1985) were referenced in chapters on interpersonal, instructional, and relational processes and also were vital to chapters on learning, curricu- lum applications, and exceptional learners. Effective teachers sensitively guide children toward important discoveries, sup- port children’s efforts at mastery, and translate learning expe- riences so that students gain a sense of accomplishment that contributes to their sustained interest and desire for further growth and mastery (see chapter by John-Steiner & Mahn in this volume; Wertsch, 1998). Classroom practices based on constructivist and relational notions are contributing to our knowledge of how to create motivating, exciting, and inviting environments that facilitate students’ achievement and social- emotional performance (see chapters by Pianta et al. and by Pressley et al. in this volume). Researchers in mathematics have found important links between teaching practices that revoice or transform student comments during discovery
Practice Initiatives 623 learning into mathematical references that draw attention to central concepts (see chapter by Lehrer & Lesh in this volume for more on these practices). Consequently, teachers are learning how to balance the need for children to freely ex- plore with their need to be encouraged by adults and provided assistance that will help them master a range of cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational abilities. Teacher Impact and Preparation Teachers create environments that nurture and enhance chil- dren’s learning as well as their mental and moral develop- ment. Studies of the role of the teacher have moved beyond simple outcome assessments of student achievement. Con- temporary research on teaching has helped delineate an es- sential teaching knowledge-base and most recently has shifted to studies that focus how teachers’ beliefs, values, at- titudes, and strategies guide everyday classroom judgments and decisions (Feiman-Nemser & Reimillard, 1996). Educa- tional researchers have begun to recognize and assess the multiple challenges faced by initial and veteran teachers (see chapter by Pressley et al. in this volume; Roehrig, Pressley, & Talotta, 2002) and increasingly are studying contexts that foster teachers’ development and improvement—especially during programs of initial teacher preparation (see chapter by Whitcomb in this volume). Contemporary work views teaching as an active, social, and sophisticated interpretive activity reciprocally influenced by a intricate array of person-internal and contextual vari- ables (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 1999). The demands of today’s diverse and politicized climates have led researchers to conclude that teaching is a highly challenging and complex process (see chapter by Pressley et al. in this volume). A growing number of studies have focused on how teachers be- come committed to and effective at meeting individual stu- dent needs (see chapter by Whitcomb in this volume). Educational psychologists have helped clarify the important role of mediated interpersonal interactions between peers, teachers, and students (see chapters by Pianta et al.; by Slavin et al.; and by Wentzel in this volume) and scaffolded teaching opportunities (see chapter by John-Steiner & Mahn in this volume). Overwhelming evidence points to improvements in reading and writing when teachers prompt, coach, and scaf- fold learning and personally model their own reading and writing processes (see chapter by Pressley in this volume). Increasingly, educational researchers have clarified the crit- ical impact of teacher attitudes, characteristics, and classroom management on interpersonal relations, academic engage- ment, and achievement levels. Teachers who highlight per- sonal goals of value, utility, and interest effect more cognitive engagement, self-regulation, and achievement in students (see chapters by Pintrich, by Pressley et al., and by Wentzel in this volume). The quality of interpersonal processes and relation- ships between students and teachers has been shown to predict evaluations of self-efficacy and learning (see chapter by Pi- anta, Hamre, & Stuhlman in this volume). Teachers also play a critical role in creating equitable climates that lead to consis- tent performance across males and females (see chapter by Koch in this volume). Furthermore, student motivational be- liefs have been positively enhanced through teachers’ attribu- tional feedback, and teachers who promote strong self-efficacy beliefs play a key role in boosting individual cognitive and self-regulatory strategies and subsequent classwide achieve- ment (see chapter by Pintrich in this volume). Educational psychology researchers have begun to trans- late current theory and models of learning into recommended best practices for teacher education reform (see chapter by McCombs in this volume). For example, researchers have recommended that new teachers be trained on how to incor- porate effective, empirically validated practices (i.e., cooper- ative learning) in the classroom (see chapter by Slavin et al. in this volume). McCormick (this volume, citing Hartman, 2001) stresses the need to prepare teachers to teach with and for metacognition. The former refers to getting teachers to use metacognitive processes to enhance their own learning through reflection on their goals for teaching and on student characteristics in relation to these goals. The latter refers to making teachers aware of how to activate metacognitive processes in their students and infuse these principles into their daily instruction. It is also clear that pedagogical content knowledge alone is insufficient for producing competent teachers. Just as critical to a teacher’s success is the ability to manage the flow of information in a classroom—especially in the diverse and intellectually heterogeneous classrooms of today’s society (see chapter by Pressley et al. in this volume). Teachers need to become more aware of their own attitudes and beliefs and recognize their role as relationship builders in making personal connections among and with students (see chapter by Pianta et al. in this volume) and in creating cultur- ally relevant (see chapter by John-Steiner & Mahn in this vol- ume) and gender-equitable classroom climates (see chapter by Koch in this volume). Teachers also must know how to produce challenging and positive learning and interpersonal climates. Climates that encourage choice, self-control, and self-reflective thinking (see chapter by McCombs in this vol- ume) and foster proof-based discussions in which cycles of conjecture and revision in light of evidence is promoted (see chapter by Lehrer & Lesh in this volume) have been found to promote literacy processes and mathematical understanding in students of all ages.
624 Future Perspectives in Educational Psychology Whitcomb (this volume) reviews the growing literature on how new teacher candidates develop such views of teaching and teaching practice. She also points to the ongoing politi- cized debates about the best means of changing and directing the practice of teaching—especially during initial teacher preparation programs. Growing evidence exists that initial teacher preparation programs must do more to ensure that teachers are able to flexibly respond and effectively adapt classroom instruction to meet diverse student needs (Kennedy, 1999). The most promising models of initial teacher prepara- tion emphasize modeling of newly learned practices in au- thentic contexts, encourage constructive evaluations of personal judgment and decision-making, and incorporate re- flective discussions with communities of experienced teach- ers (Borko & Putnam, 1996; Putnam & Borko, 2000). However, Whitcomb (this volume) and others have called for more comprehensive and rigorous studies designed to help clarify how knowledge, beliefs, and values filter an initial teacher candidate’s perceptions, interpretations, and subse- quent responses to classroom events. It remains to be seen whether currently proposed teacher preparation reforms trans- late to modifications in actual teaching practice and ultimately to impacts on student achievement. It is very likely that in the future, educational research will be more effectively translated into preservice and in-service teacher preparation programs. Indeed, teachers need to be viewed as continuing learners whose own performance and professional development should mirror the best of what we know about learning, motivation, and development (see chapter by McCombs in this volume). Until recently, re- searchers knew little about which issues and topics were en- tering into the lexicon of teaching practice or why certain information entered and not others. Whitcomb (this volume) predicts that future teacher training and development models will seek to build a richer conceptual content knowledge, a deeper appreciation of and belief system about the pedagogy of teaching, and a broader array of instructional decision- making and judgment processes in teacher candidates. She and McCombs (this volume) predict that core professional skills, judgments, and values will increasingly be based upon and guided by well-founded, learner-centered principles aris- ing from the educational psychology literature; this also will involve training teachers to use and analyze rules of credible evidence to enhance their ability to ask critical questions about and make informed judgments on the relative impact of interventions (see chapter by Levin, O’Donnell, & Kratochwill in this volume). A critical opportunity exists for educational psychologists to have a strong impact on strengthening our knowledge of the complex processes, challenges, and self-reflective abilities of highly competent teachers. This potential will increase be- cause of the predicted shortage of new teachers and because of a greater emphasis on student performance accountability standards. Competent teachers will be in great demand, in- creasing the importance of our burgeoning knowledge base and the need for sound pedagogy and more rigorous research to inform and transform the field of teaching and teacher preparation. Whitcomb (this volume) suggests that these goals will best be accomplished through a greater integration of work across the individual traditions studied in educational psychology and the work currently underway to study initial teacher preparation and continued teacher learning.
The emergence of the widely available public Internet has led to unheard-of possibilities for long-distance and other forms of collaborative learning. Goldman-Segall and Maxwell (this volume) posit the emergence of the Internet as the beginning of a new research field in computer-assisted learning. Virtual environments in which students can meet and interact and collaboratively work on research are more readily available as a new learning format. These researchers call for a move beyond an individual focus to one of a community of minds in which the focus is on how knowledge is constructed be- tween people engaged in real-life inquiry. Their newly pro- posed perspectivity theory corresponds to a move from viewing a computer as an object with which to think to a view of the computer as a partner or as a tool that allows people to think and rethink in relationship with others. Their ideas build upon past work that views the computer as a cognitive partner in learning, as part of the cultural milieu, and as a convivial tool (Illich, 1972). Innovations such as collabora- tive design boards, real-time meeting space, scaffolded con- ferencing and note-taking, hypertext and media, and video conferencing have provided the medium for studying how groups of learners work together to create an ecology for learning. These innovations also will help us to rethink the kinds of human relations that can be built with multimedia tools.
One controversial future question is whether these new on- line environments are as effective as direct collaborative en- gagement with others during learning. Future research is needed to establish whether there are links between what we know about face-to-face cooperative learning groups and those offered through new media and technology advances (see chapters by Goldman-Segall & Maxwell and by Slavin et al. in this volume). We hope that future researchers will move |
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