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Lecture 8
Components of communicative act connected with the
Language code.
Discourse and discourse analysis

1. 
   Preliminary remarks
   
2. 
   Defining discourse
   
3. 
   Discourse and social practice
   
4. 
   Conversation as a discourse type
   

4. 
   a. Exchanges
   

4. 
   b. Conversational success
   
5. 
   Maxims of communication
   

1. 
   Preliminary remarks
   

One of the approaches that has developed in analysing the way sentences work in a sequence to produce coherent stretches of speech is discourse analysis. It focuses on the structure of naturally occurring spoken language, as found in such "discourses" as conversations, interviews, commentaries and speeches. Traditionally this was the goal of rhetoric, and later of stylistics. The term "discourse analysis" was used in 1952 by Z.Harris who tried to spread distributional method from a sentence to coherent text and attract a sociocultural situation to its description.
Expanding language analysis beyond the level of the individual utterance originated from sociology, particularly from the "conversational analysis" initiated by H. Sacks (1935-1975) in the 1960s within the more general paradigm of ethnomethodology founded by H. Garfinkel. This work established bonds with the "Ethnology of speaking" approach founded by Dell H.Hymes, who had been trained in the anthropological tradition. What is more, both conversational analysis and the Ethnography of Communication found common grounds with Halliday and the London School, as well as with Prague school of linguistics. John J. Gumperz is generally credited with having drawn these various trends together in the later 1960s into the field known as "discourse analysis".
E.Benweniste was one of the first to give the word "discourse" (which in French linguistic tradition meant speech in general, text), a terminological meaning, having designated with it “speech assumed by the speaker" (e.g. various genres of oral communication, letters, memoirs and others). He contrasted discourse with an objective narration. Discourse differs from an objective narration with a number of grammatical features (tense system, pronouns etc.) and communicative purposes. Discourse analysis, being a relative social phenomenon solely depends on the wide range of disciplines, such as sociology, anthropology, cognitive and social psychology, philosophy, for knowledge and methodologies and it is difficult to draw a clear line of demarcation between certain linguistic fields, such as anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistic, discourse analysis and cognitive linguistics, as the approaches to “ study of language in use” are borrowed from these subfields and most of the times the findings are independently supported by the fresh evidences. Discourse analysis, in turn, is composed of a wide range of subdisciplines, such as pragmatics, conversational analysis, speech act theory and ethnography of speaking. The discipline studies language used in the context, so its subject matter is language as a whole, either written or spoken, in terms of transcriptions, larger texts, audio or video recordings, which provides an opportunity to the analyst to work with language rather than a single sentence.

2. 
   Defining discourse
   

Discourse (from Latin discursus — argument, French speech) is verbal communication; talk, conversation, a formal treatment of a subject in speech or writing, such as a sermon or dissertation, a unit of text used by linguists for the analysis of linguistic phenomena that range over more than one sentence. A discourse may be:

•