Фонетики со смежными науками: акустикой, анатомией, физиологией, психологией

Articulatory and physiological cassification of English consonants.

So, there are two major classes of sounds distinguished in any language: consonants and vowels. This opposition is a linguistic universal. There are several approches to classification of consonants (those, proposed by Russian phoneticians versus those developed by the English ones, all having their own pecularities and different sets of basical principles).

On the articulatory level the consonants change: 1.in the degree os noise 2. in the manner of articulation 3. in the place of articulation.

1. 
   According to the degree of noise all consonants are divided into NOISE CONSONANTS and SONORANTS.
   

Sonorants are made with tone prevaling over noise because of a rather wide air passage.
Noise consonants vary in:

1. 
   the work of the vocal cords
   
2. 
   in the degree of force of articulation
   

According to the work of vocal cords they may be VOICED and VOICELESS. Voiced consonants are not fully voiced in all word positions, in the word final position, for example, they are partly devoiced.
According to the degree of force of articulation the consonants are subdevided into STRONG NOISE CONSONANTS and WEAK NOISE CONSONANTS. Strong noise consonants are produced with more muscular energy and with stronger breath effort. Weak noise consonants are produced with a relatively weak breath effort. This characteristic is connected with the work of the vocal cords: voiceless consonants are strong and voiced consonants are weak. FORTIS and LENIS are terms used by the English phoneticians.

According to the degree of noise	NOICE CONSONANTS [b, d, g, v, ð, z, ς, dς, p, t, k, f, ө, s, ∫, t∫,h]			SONORANTS [m, n, ŋ, w, l, r, j]
	Acc. to the work of vocal cords	VOICED NOICE CONSONANTS [b, d, g, v, ð, z, ς, dς]	VOICELESS NOICE CONSONANTS [p, t, k, f, ө, s, ∫, t∫,h]
	Acc. to the force of articulation	WEAK NOICE CONSONANTS (LENIS) [b, d, g, v, ð, z, ς, dς]	STRONG NOICE CONSONANTS (FORTIS) [p, t, k, f, ө, s, ∫, t∫,h]

2. The maner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. It can be complete, incomplete and momentary.

When the obstruction is complete the organs of speech are in contact and the air stream meets a closure in the mouth or nasal cavity. An incomplete obstruction means that the active organ of speech moves toward the point of acticulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them. Momentary obstruction is formed for example in the production of the Russian sonorants [p, p’], when the tip of the tongue taps quickly several times agains the teeth ridge.
So, according to the manner of articulation consonants are of four groups:

1. 
   OCCLUSIVE
   
2. 
   CONSTRICLIVE
   
3. 
   OCCLUSIVE-CONSTRICTIVE
   
4. 
   ROLLED
   

OCCLUSIVE CONSONANTS are sounds in the production of which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in the mouth. OCCLUSIVE NOICE CONSONANTS are called STOPS because the breath is completely stopped at some point of articulation and then it’s released with a slight explosure (that is why they are also called PLOSIVES). According the the work of vocal cords STOPS may be VOICED and VOICELESS. According to the force of articulation English VOICED STOPS are WEAK, and English VOICELESS STOPS are STRONG.

The particular quality of a sonorant depends on the position of the soft palate. OCCLUSIVE SONORANTS are also made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air stream escapes thtough the nose, so they are NASAL.

CONSTRICTIVE CONSONANTS are those in the production of which the air stream mets an incomplee obstruction in the resonator, so the air passage is constricted. Both NOISE CONSONANTS and SONORANTS may be CONSTRICTIVE.

CONSTRICTIVE NOISE CONSONANTS are called FRICATIVES, because in their articulation the air passage is constricted and the air ascapes through the narrowing with friction. FRICATIVE also differ in the work of the vocal cords and in the degree of force of articulation, so they may be VOICED, VOICELESS, WEAK and STRONG.
CONSTRICTIVE SONORANTS are also made with an incomplete obsruction but with a rather wide air passage, so tone prevails over noise. In their production the soft palate is raise, so they are ORAL.

OCCLUSIVE-CONSTRICTIVE CONSONANTS or AFFRICATES are NOISE CONSONANTS produced with a compleet obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction. And again, they can be VOICED and WEAK or VOICELESS and STRONG.

ROLLED CONSONANTS are sounds produced with periodical momentary obstructions.

Acc. to the degree of noise	NOISE CONSONANTS						SONORANTS
Acc. to the manner of acticulation	OCCLUSIVE (STOPS or PLOSIVES) [p, b, t, d, t, k, g]		CONSTRICTIVE (FRICATIVES) [f, v, ө, ð, s, z, ∫, ς, h]		OCCLUSIVE-CONSTRICTIVE (AFFRICATES) [t∫, dς]		OCCLUSIVE (NASAL) [m, n, ŋ]		CONSTRICTIVE (ORAL) [w, l, r, j]	ROLLED --
Acc. to the work of vocal cords	VOICED [b, d, g]	VOICELESS [p, t, k]	VOICED [v, ð, z, ς]	VOICELESS [f, ө, s, ∫, h]	VOICED [dς]	VOICELESS [t∫]
Acc. to the force of acticulation	WEAK [b, d, g]	STRONG [p, t, k]	WEAK [v, ð, z, ς]	STRONG [f, ө, s, ∫, h]	WEAK [dς]	STRONG [t∫]

3. The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. There may be one place of articulation (or ocus) or tow places of articulation (or foci) when active organs of speech contact with two point of articulation. In the frist case cocsonants are called UNICENTRAL, in the second they are BICENTRAL. Examples of BICENTRAL CONSONANTS are: FRICATIVES [∫, ς] and AFFRICATES [t∫, dς], because the primary focus is formed by the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge, and the secondary focus is the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate. There are also BICENTRAL SONORANTS: [w] and the dark [ł].

So, according to the position of the active organ of speech against the point of articulation (i.e. the place of articulation) consonants may be:

1. 
   LABIAL
   
2. 
   LINGUAL
   
3. 
   GLOTTAL
   

LABIAL CONSONSNTS are made against the lips. They may be BILABIAL, which are produced when both lips are active [p, b, m, w], and LABIO-DENTAL which are articulated with the lip against the edge of the upper teeth [f, v].
LINGUAL CONSONANTS are classified into FORELINGUAL, MEDIOLINGUAL and BACKLINGUAL.
FORELINGUAL CONSONANTS are articulated with the tip of the blade of the tongue. They differ in the position and work of the tip of the tongue: APICAL, if the tip of the tongue is active [t, d, s, z, ∫, ς, ө, ð, t∫, dς, n, l]; DORSAL, if the blade of the tongue takes part in the articulation, the tip being passive and lowered – in English there are no DORSAL CONSONANTS, but in Russian its [т, т’, д, д’, н, н’, с, с’, з, з’, ч’, ц]; CACUMINAL, if the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge, but the depression is formed is formed in the blade of the tongue [r] plus Russian [p, p’]. According to the place of obstruction FORELINGUAL CONSONANTS may be: INTERDENTAL, which are made with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth [ө, ð]; DENTAL, when the blade of the tongue is against the upper teeth – there are no such English consonants, in Russian it’s [т, т’, д, д’, с, с’, з, з’, ц, л, л’]; ALVEOLAR, are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth ridge [t, d, s, z, n, l]; POST-ALVEOLAR, when the tip of the blade of the tongue is against the back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it [r], in Russian [p, p’]; PALATO-ALVEOLAR, when the tip or the blade of the tongue is against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation [t∫, dς, ∫, ς].
MEDIOLINGUAL CONSONANTS are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always PALATAL (acc. to the place of obstruction), i. e. the front part of the tongue is raised high to the hard palate [j].
BACKLINGUAL CONSONANTS are called VELARS, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate (velum) [k, g, ŋ].
The only GLOTTAL consonant [h] is articulated against the glottis. There are no glottal consonants in Russian.