Grammatical peculiarities of toponyms in the english and uzbek languages

The toponymic system in the modern linguistic paradigm
ASShcherbak distinguishes the following principles that allow us to talk about systematic toponymy in the material of the city-lexical dictionary:
1) transformation (it is possible to express any segment of the world picture that has been actualized as a toponym in the toponymic space);
2) animation (a lexical unit can take the status of a toponym without losing the general generative basis of the name of the common name or the specific name);
3) projection (a general everyday vocabulary related to different areas of human activity, different thematic, lexical-semantic groups and types of related names, mainly anthroponyms and toponyms);
4) actualization (as a basis for the formation of toponymic units, any lexical-semantic word groups, or any names that act as a driving unit for new names that can be used);
5) delay (onomastics reflects such a linguistic picture of the world, which is more archaic than the real linguistic picture of the world, because toponymy preserves linguistic archaisms);
6) correlation (in the toponymic dictionary there is a correlation of the denomination with the area of the production base that created it);
7) impartiality ;
8) integrity ;
9) compiled ;
10) hierarchy ;
11) openness ;
12) coding (presence of repeated toponymic designations)
Toponyms make up a significant part of the onomastic lexical language fund. According to researchers, the toponymic layer makes up 2-3% of the total vocabulary content [6,56 ] . As humanity studies the geographical objects of the surface of our planet and expands its geographical horizons, nameless physical-geographical objects are becoming less and less. A geographical name is a part of the vocabulary system of a particular national language, which is formed according to the basic laws of the language and serves in speech according to its basic rules and traditions [7,55 ] . Any geographic object has both a geographical term and a toponymization that calls the type of object, so the so-called topographical object "is named twice , so the semantics of the toponym is additionally enriched". Toponyms are distinguished by the secondary nature of the language elements involved in their creation, as well as the long duration of most of them. Lost information can be recovered during etymological study; For example, the names of English settlements beginning with the castle element "city" represent a small part of the oikonymi that came to us from the British: Caerleon , Caernarfon, Caerphilly, Caerwent, Caerlaverok, Lancashire. Cambridge → Cambridge, Cambridge, Canterbury → Canterbury, Carlisle → Carlisle, Caerphilly → Chichester , Gloucester, Gloucester, Exeter → Exeter , Lancashire → Lancaster, Leicester → Leicester, Leicester → Lichfield, Salisbury → Salisbury, Winchester → Salisbury, Winchester.
Any specific name is an onomastic sign that reflects the set of knowledge about a specific name (linguistic and encyclopedic knowledge) and serves to study onomastic knowledge in the human mind
Toponyms are divided into anthropotoponyms, toponyms, ethnotoponyms, zootoponyms , fitoponyms, ergotoponyms, etc. names derived from anthroponyms (Columbus, Baltimore, Washington, Fort Johnson, Woodrow Wilson Bridge, Cape Kennedy) ; Toponyms (toponymic metonymy) - geographic names derived from geographical terms or existing toponyms (Mississippi River → Mississippi State, Missouri River → Missouri State) ; Ethnotoponyms are toponyms derived from the names of tribes, peoples and other ethnic units. (Kansas, Massachusetts, Dakota, Utah, Essex, Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Hitchin, Oundle, Trickingham, Normanton, Irby) ; Zootoponyms - names given to geographical objects by species (Bearpaw Creek, Beaver, Buffalo, Squirrel, Butterfly, Eagle, Fox, Lizard) ; Phytotoponyms - toponyms reflecting flora (Big Oak Mountain, Birch Creek, Willowwood Park, Alder Lake) ; Ergotonyms are geographical names that reflect a person's social status and professional activity (Artist Point, Butcherknife Canyon, Driver, Hunter Creek, Lawyers Hill, Patron Creek, Weaver) , etc.
According to etymology, toponyms are divided into aboriginal, assimilated and hybrid. Adopted names are the phonetic and phonetic of the language that has changed over time adapted to grammatical features and reinterpreted. Thus, the toponyms of the United States combine Anglo-Saxon, Indian, Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Finnish, Greek, East Slavic, Italian, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Polish, Japanese, Czech, Arabic, and Armenian names. origin .
According to the principle of distinguishing the number of characters (objects marked with a geographical name), one can distinguish single pattern, multi-degenerate and empty toponyms. Unilateral or ideal toponyms perform the function of individualization at the highest level, that is, these are toponyms related to only one geographical object (Dinosaur City , Viper City in Colorado , Kentucky City ) . Many geographical toponyms have a large number of referents (Kentucky is the name of settlements in the states of Mississippi, Illinois, Arkansas, settlements named after Arizona are found on the maps of Texas, Nevada, Louisiana, the city of Petersburg is found 35 times, Moscow - 24 times) . Empty toponyms do not contain real geographic features, such as the names of fictitious geographic features that never existed ( Queer Street on the highway to Needham ). Based on the same principle, DIermolovich divides toponyms into singular and plural [11,107]. Single toponyms are those associated with one toponymic object in the linguistic collective mind ( London , New York, Washington, Paris ), although they may refer to many other, as a rule, smaller geographical objects. possible (there are 7 toponyms in the USA). New York , 19 - London , 23 - settlements named after Paris , 35 - Washington ). Several toponyms are not associated with any geographical object in the linguistic mind. This includes the remaining mass of place names.
It is estimated that there are currently about 3 million names in the United States and about 1 million names are missing. The database of this study contains about 3,000 toponyms of the United States, which are a small part of the entire toponymic system of the United States, giving a clear picture of their etymology, structure and internal form. American toponyms are not homogeneous in terms of their composition (age, source language, morphology, semantics). Compared to the toponymy of Great Britain, the toponymy of the United States is very young: it began to be formed less than four hundred years ago, and many features characteristic of American toponyms began to form in the last quarter of the 18th century. .
Aboriginal toponyms (toponyms of Anglo-Saxon origin) make up the main part of the toponymy of the USA (1621 units, 51.6 %). They are often fully motivated and their meaning is easily revealed: Yellowstone "yellow rock", Long Beach "long beach", White River "white river", Old Town "old town", Hot Springs "hot springs". , Mountain Home " mountain house, Garden City "Garden City", Little Rock "Little Rock", Salt Lake City "Salt Lake City", Red River "Red River", Blue River "Blue River", Long Island in New York "Long Island" Among toponyms of English origin, there are many symbolic toponyms with a positive value: Freedom "freedom", "Hope" "hope", "Harmony" "harmony".
US toponymy contains a large number of "toponym migrants", i.e. twins of already existing geographical names from other countries, mainly Great Britain. The list of toponyms from Great Britain presented in Appendix 1 contains 249 units, which is 2%, and about 20% of geographical names are located in the northeast of the country (New England area). Residents moving to a new place of residence transfer their native toponyms to the new area out of a sense of patriotism and a desire to preserve the memory of the Motherland. Toponyms can be joined with the defining particles: Great- ( Great Barrington ), West- ( West Tisbury ), East- ( East Greenwich ) and the most common adjective New- ( New Cumberland, New England, New Chester, New London , New Boston, New Hyde Park, New Brighton, New Gloucester, New Hampshire, New Cumberland, New Manchester, New Windsor, New Lyme, New Kent, New Kent, New Kensington , New Oxford, New Plymouth, New Windsor ).
The degree of assimilation of foreign names and their influence on the creation of new (American) place names varies in different geographical regions of the country. This difference is determined by many linguistic and extralinguistic factors [12,61 ] . Among borrowed toponyms, taking into account the source of the language, we can distinguish the following groups of toponyms: Nomadic, Spanish, French, Dutch, German, Finnish, Greek, Eastern Slavic, Italian, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Polish, Japanese, Czech , Arabic and Armenian.
Toponyms of Indian origin (pre-European local toponyms, so-called "aboriginal toponyms") survive almost entirely in the United States. Many of the names of indigenous peoples are found in places where they lived and settled a long time ago , where Europeans had close contact with the indigenous people and adopted their geographical names. VANikonov, on the one hand, points to a certain exoticism of such toponyms, and on the other hand, emphasizes their neutrality in relation to their nominations, which is the reason why Indian names have survived to this day. VANikonov writes: "Prefering the name of a French, English or German state means giving the advantage of one of the rival groups to the detriment of others who do not compromise with it. In such a fierce competition.

3.2. Linguistic study of the place of toponyms from the Uzbek village meaning in creating the linguistic image of the world

When we come face to face with the linguistic landscape of a foreign language world, we come face to face with its culture, national mentality, and the unique way of thinking of native speakers. Thus, the question arises, which primary takes over: the language landscape of the world and the national mentality and character of the speakers in the language landscape of the world? Cultural-communal traditions, historical events, external conditions of existence (geography, climate, natural) form the basis of the community and national character and mentality. In the future , these specific features of the nation and national mentality will find expression in the linguistic image of the world in their national languages, and will be strengthened there forever. All these places of residence may be different, but the national character, embodied in the image of the language world of the nation, is passed from generation to generation, presenting new generations with already formed and formed psychic features of world perception . When a child acquires his language, he perceives the world around him at the level of language , thereby acquiring a linguistic image of the world that is unique to speakers of his own language.
Language is the most valuable source of the formation and manifestation of the national mentality, through which culture is preserved and passed on to other generations. With the help of language, you can learn the most important features of the world. It shows not only the real world surrounding a person, his living conditions, but also the social consciousness of the people, his mentality, national character, lifestyle, customs, traditions, value system . Language is the treasure of the entire culture. Language as a cultural phenomenon, when describing it from this point of view, it is necessary to pay attention to the features of the national mentality and their reflection in the lexicon, phraseology, speech, etiquette concepts, and the nature of speech activity of a certain culture carrier. The language image of the world is a reflection of the general national view of the world, including the configuration of the values of the concepts that are most closely related to the ideals of society or the mental phenomena of the outside world, which are evaluated most positively. members of society . Among the main functions of language, many linguists distinguish the national-cultural function. AALeontyev wrote: "Language reflects and reinforces reality, abstract concepts, etc., uses the historical past of the people, whose existence depends on the specific conditions of the people's work, social and cultural life" .
It should be noted that the linguistic and cultural features of worldview, culture and thinking were initially considered from the perspective of philosophy and logic. The term "world image" was introduced by Ludwig Wittgenstein in his Tractatus Logico-philosophical tractatus, which believed that thinking is an activity with the nature of speech and essentially signs . The linguistic representation of the world appears as a metaphor and is currently one of the main concepts of linguistics. The linguistic representation of the world is the way people perceive the world through the language of the prism [2.33]. A person perceives the world and himself with their language, which reflects the entire socio-historical experience. This experience applies not only to the national and universal experience, but also to the national experience that gives rise to the characteristics of each individual language. Through their language, the mass media receives a specific linguistic picture of the world, which forms a certain attitude in a person to the world around him. Also, the language image of the world determines the standards of human behavior that determine the attitude of a person to the world and the holistic system of views of native speakers. Thus, we can say that language not only transmits and stores information, but also creates an internal organization that must be transferred.
I wonder why Chinese people pay so much attention to food. They argue that this particular focus on food is due to the fact that throughout their long history, the Chinese were often hungry and almost always malnourished. It is known that droughts, floods, locusts, and plagues plagued the people of China from time to time. According to scientists, there were 1,828 food disasters in China between 108 BC and 1911. In the lean years, the Chinese had to eat poisonous shingles, stone chips and other inedible parts. The poor in China called "need food" as they roamed the cities with empty bowls hoping to get food. Even Western missionaries noted that the speed of learning Chinese often begins with the words "food" and "food". It was also noted that many farmers sold their children for food, a fact often mentioned in history and reflected in many Chinese literary works.
Twentieth century made corrections to the theory and practice of literature, limited the literary and linguistic aspects of the analysis of the artistic text within the framework of philology. "One part of the text is devoted to literary criticism, and the other to linguistics" has become commonplace. Literary criticism, first of all, traditionally deals with the study of the ideological and thematic content, genre and compositional uniqueness of literary works, and linguistics studies the language tools that operate in the text and ensure its construction. Thus, the linguistic stylistic analysis of the literary text implies a detailed and comprehensive analysis "under the linguistic microscope" (as expressed by NM Shansky) in order to reveal the role and functions of linguistic tools in the ideological and thematic content of the text. word to content).

3.3. Cross-linguistic linguistic and cultural political analysis of the role of toponyms in creating the linguistic image of the world

The need for a linguistic-stylistic approach to the analysis of literary texts arises from the fact that in the field of text research in the 20th century there was a tendency to move from Russian formalism to the structuralism of the 60s to the structuralism of the 60s of the 20th century. integration of related disciplines such as poetics , psycholinguistics, anthropology, semiotics, etc. (introduction) Linguistic analysis of literary text develops analytical reading skills necessary for the formation of a modern philologist. This course teaches not only analytical techniques, but also "thinking techniques".
Analytical reading skills allow developing the ability not only to passively receive information from a literary text, but also to actively analyze it and then interpret it correctly. D. Akhapkin's interesting article entitled "Analytical reading and writing in the modern educational system" should be highlighted, in which literature is not formed, but increases our ability to interpret events. Any improvement in interpreting different situations and evaluating possible scenarios, actions or reactions is based not only on observed or reliably reported material, but also on thought experiments that provide significant advantage.
This experience clearly shows the need to take analytical reading more seriously. One of the main practical tasks of research is to fundamentally change the attitude of both teachers and students to text analysis, which, of course, can be done in the most vivid and interesting way in the case of high fiction .
In our opinion, the main mistake of many modern translators of literary texts (teachers, analysts, critics, etc.) is that, unfortunately, their analysis has a more cultural nature, and they often focus only on the historical context, the author's biography and focus on biography. an ideological analysis that ignores the obvious fact that a literary work cannot be realized without language, and therefore the linguistic component should be given priority, especially in the training of future philologists.
What is the linguistic-stylistic analysis of the text?
The analysis of the text with a linguistic-stylistic approach allows to determine the specific features of the author's worldview, the choice of time and place, the personality of the characters, as well as the types of linguistic methods used to express the structure and development of the plot in a literary work.
modern science and practice , the linguistic analysis of the literary text consists of incomplete (partial) and complete analysis. The first case emphasizes the linguistic dominant, which forms the stylistic dominant together with the main idea of the author. In the second case, units of all levels of the linguistic structure of the text are studied in their aesthetic unity and interaction . Linguistic analysis of the text is a complete analysis of the text.
Linguistic analysis of literary text filled with extralinguistic interpretations, genre and stylistic features is the topic of our course. Goals and objectives of the course "Linguostylistic analysis of literary text" .
" Linguo-stylistic analysis of the literary text" is to form the understanding of the text as an object of scientific research and a subject of linguistic study from the point of view of modern scientific knowledge from a synergetic-psychological point of view.
During the course, students get an idea of the specific features of an artistic text, according to which criteria a certain text can be considered literary; discuss the difference between analysis and interpretation procedures ; analyze the reasons why the text should be interpreted. Students master modern linguistic and stylistic analysis tools and get basic information from various scientific fields such as structural poetics, receptive aesthetics, narratology and cognitive poetics. among others) is to analyze a range of English and American literary works in order to fully understand.
Each lesson consists of a discussion of the theoretical foundations of the linguistic-stylistic interpretation of an artistic text, followed by joint practical work of the teacher and students on the interpretation of one or more artistic texts.
The methods of analysis of the literary text are hischaracteristics , specific characteristics and research goals. These methods include:
1) linguistic-stylistic interpretation;
2) functional and stylistic analysis;
3) quantitative characteristics of text elements in the study of the writing style;
4) method of selective review, analysis and explanation of language difficulties, individual author's deviations from general language norms;
5) method of line-by-line analysis of coherent text in terms of dynamic length and integrity. This method is based on determining the correlation between micro and macro images. Line-by-line analysis requires taking into account the strict, artistically reinforced sequence of the literary text and the dynamics of these images in fiction.
This method is primarily used in practical lessons.
6) the method of intersection and complex analysis of the whole work as a whole, its compositional, figurative and linguistic structure;
7) the method of linguistic experiment - changing the structure of the syntactic structure while maintaining the conceptual content of the phrase, passage ;
8) method of comparison : 1) author's options; 2) the way different writers develop the theme;
3) the difference between the original artistic texts and their translations
9) heuristic method - understanding and thinking through structure
All the above methods are analyzed and used in the analysis of texts in seminars. In addition, almost every text analysis is accompanied by a written creative work.
Teaching active reading skills using a variety of formal and informal written assignments that are integrated, generalized, and integrated into existing knowledge systems is essential. In American universities, this approach has long been known as learning by writing, literally "writing to learn." What does it mean to write to learn rather than to learn to write? It is important to note that students learn and retain more content when they are actively engaged in their learning . This means that students need to do more than just repeat what they hear or read. Writing is an important component for students to be active in their learning. It is high for students a way to get into level thinking , integrating information across subjects and reflecting on their learning process. It's important to note that writing in this case is much more than learning grammar, style, and mechanics.
The course of linguo-stylistic analysis of the literary text helps to create a strong general educational base, a special general "knowledge cushion" cannot be imagined without courses that develop such reading and writing skills - it gives you the ability allows to develop. not only passively receiving knowledge from the teacher , but also active learning by communicating with each other.
"I think books should come to every porch like electricity, like milk in England, like utilities, and the cost should be minimal. And in any case, the poems should be sold in pharmacies (if they light up the account that horrifies you). And , of course, an anthology of American poetry should be next to the Bible on the bedside table of every hotel room, which does not object to the proximity, does not complain about the proximity of the telephone directory. "