Guide to Citizens’ Rights and Responsibilities

B R I E F   H I S T O R Y
As with many of the other nations of contemporary Africa, Nigeria is a colo-
nial construct. The amalgamation of its ethnically and culturally diverse popula-
tion into a political entity was the result of British conquest and control of much
of Nigeria between 1861 and 1897. This fact is central to understanding Nigeria’s
growing pains since independence. In creating a largely artificial state, the
British left several enduring legacies that have shaped the government and
politics of the country since its inception.
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Dimlang Pk.
6,700 ft.
2042 m.
Chappal
Waddi
7,937 ft.
2419 m.
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Porto
Novo
Niamey
Lagos
Ibadan
Minna
Sokoto
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Jos
Maiduguri
Iwo
Ede
Aladaja
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Ilesha
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Kaduna
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Kafanchan
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Enugu
Lokoja
Aba
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Kumo
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Katsina
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Makurdi
Wawa
Parakou
Jebba
Nguru
Magaria
Maradi
Bauchi
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Bali
Calabar
Gumel
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EQUATORIAL
GUINEA
GABON
C E N T R A L
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R E P U B L I C
C H A D
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PRÍNCIPE
Nigeria
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NIGERIA
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300 Kilometers
(MAP BY MARYLAND CARTOGRAPHICS/ THE GALE GROUP)

Nigeria came into existence on the eve of World War I (1914–1918) when
the British colonial rulers merged the two British 
protectorates
of Northern
and Southern Nigeria into one entity. The new Nigeria, as defined by 
the British, placed numerous and distinct ethnic populations under one
administrative system. Of this large number of groups, the northern-based
Hausa-Fulani, the Yoruba in the southwest, and the Igbo in the southeast have
traditionally been the most politically active and dominant. In recognition of
their strength and political power, the 1960 Independence Constitution estab-
lished Nigeria as a federation comprising three regions—Northern, Western,
and Eastern—and a federal territory (Lagos), and instituted a 
Westminster
model of parliamentary democracy at the national and regional levels. A fourth
region was later added.
Institutions and powers of government at both regional and federal lev-
els were divided into three areas: legislative, executive, and judicial. Detailed
provisions were made for entrenched fundamental rights, and elections
based on universal 
suffrage
were to be held regularly. The federation
received political independence on October 1, 1960, after about seven
decades of British colonial rule.
T H E   N AT U R E   O F   T H E   G O V E R N M E N T
Since 1999 Nigeria has had a democratic, civilian government. The 1999
constitution under which the government is constituted is essentially a remake
of the 1979 constitution that was the basis of the Second Republic. Like the
American presidential system, it sets up a three-tier federal structure of demo-
cratically elected national, state, and local systems of government. At the nation-
al level, an independently elected executive is balanced against a two-house
National Assembly and an appointed and independent judiciary. The same
pattern exists at the state level.
The electoral system is multiparty-based, but the ruling party, the People’s
Democratic Party (PDP), has used its control of state resources to maintain its
dominance at the national level. Opposition to PDP has come mainly from two
parties with mostly regional support: the All Nigeria People’s Party and the
Alliance for Democracy. In the 2003 national elections, President Olusegun
Obasanjo (b. 1937) was reelected to a second four-year term. His ruling PDP
also won 70 percent of the seats in the national legislature and 75 percent of the
state governorships. Allegations of political intimidation and vote-rigging were
raised, especially in southeastern states, but a majority of Nigerians appear to
have accepted the result.
The institutional performance of the National Assembly has not been
impressive. From its inception, this legislative body has been tainted by charges
of bribery and misappropriation of funds. Relations among members have been
characterized by political and personal rivalries and intrigues, even among
members of the same party. Disputes with the president are common, and twice
since 1999 factions within the president’s party in both chambers have threat-
ened to start 
impeachment
proceedings against him.
The court system is very similar to that of the United States. The Supreme
Court of Nigeria sits at the apex of the country’s judiciary and is the highest court
of the land. An intermediate court of appeal sits between the Supreme Court and
federal state high courts and other subordinate courts. The judiciary is subject to
political influence and susceptible to corruption, but the Supreme Court and fed-
eral
appellate
courts have shown a great degree of independence and provided
arguably the only element of stability and consistency in the often-chaotic
200
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
N i g e r i a
appellate: a court having jurisdiction to
review the findings of lower courts
impeach: to accuse of a crime or misconduct,
especially a high official; to remove from a
position, especially as a result of criminal
activity
protectorate: a territory or country under the
protection of another sovereign country’s
military
Westminster: a democratic model of
government comprising operational
procedures for a legislative body, based on
the system used in the United Kingdom
■ ■ ■  
suffrage: to vote, or, the right to vote

Nigerian politics. The legal system is based on English common law, modified by
codifications of 
customary law
and Islamic law.
C I R C U M S TA N C E S   L E A D I N G   T O   T H E   A D O P T I O N  
O F   T H E   G O V E R N M E N TA L   S Y S T E M
From the time of independence in 1960 to mid-1999 when another civilian
rule was initiated, Nigeria had only ten years of democratic government; the rest
was spent under military rule. The pervasiveness of military rule in Nigerian
politics is partly a consequence of the breakdown of party politics in the First
Republic and partly as a result of centrifugal forces dating back to colonial rule.
Unlike many African countries that came under the control of a single party
after independence, Nigeria entered nationhood as a multiparty state. By the
time of independence, three major parties had emerged, all regional based: the
National Council for Nigeria and Cameroons (NCNC), an eastern region domi-
nated party led by Herbert Macaulay (1864–1945), and Nnamdi Azikiwe
(1904–1996), and the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC) led by Ahmadu Bello
(1909–1966) and Abubakar Tafawa Balewa (1912–1966).
Nigeria’s first post-independent civilian government was a 
coalition
between
the NPC and NCNC. Balewa, the titular head of NPC, was named the prime
minister, and Azikiwe, the NCNC leader, became the 
governor-general
, succeeding
the pre-independence governor-general James Wilson Robertson (1899–1983).
Under a new constitution in 1963, Nigeria became a republic, and Azikiwe was
named the country’s first president, although this was a largely ceremonial post.
The Balewa government found itself confronted by many problems. Among
the difficulties of the republic were widespread political corruption at the
national level, regional and ethnic tensions generated by both the 1963 census
and the 1964 national elections, and the breakdown of political order in the
western region. Unable to control these problems effectively, the Balewa gov-
ernment was overthrown in a military 
coup
in January 1966 by a group of junior
army (predominantly Igbo) officers.
The junior officers surrendered to Major-General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi
(1924–1966), commander in chief of the armed forces, who immediately sus-
pended the constitution and instituted a Supreme Military Council. The Ironsi
regime
was itself overthrown on July 29, 1966 by northern officers who felt that
the earlier coup was a plot to establish Igbo rule on Nigeria. Ironsi was killed in
the coup, along with many Igbo officers. A northerner, Lieutenant Yakubu
Gowon ( b. 1934), was installed as the commander in chief and head of state.
The Gowon regime quickly restored discipline in the military, made politi-
cal concessions to the Western Region by releasing Chief Obafemi Awolowo
(1909–1987), who had been jailed for treason by the Balewa regime and vowed
to return Nigeria to civilian rule. Civil war erupted in 1967 when Gowon pro-
posed a twelve-state structure, intended to produce larger representation for
ethnic minorities other than the major groups. Afraid that the Igbos might be
marginalized
at the national level and in their own region, and with reports of
Hausa massacre of Igbo traders and residents in the north, Lieutenant-Colonel
Odumegwu Ojukwu ( b. 1933), the military governor of the Eastern Region,
refused to recognize the legitimacy of Gowon’s regime, declared 
secession
of
the region from the country, and proclaimed its independence as the Republic
of Biafra in May 30, 1967. The war lasted until Biafra surrendered in 1970.
Gowon designed a transition plan for civilian rule but reneged on its imple-
mentation and was himself overthrown on July 10, 1975 by yet another military
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
201
N i g e r i a
marginalize: to move to the outer borders,
or to move one to a lower position
secede: to break away from, especially
politically
coalition: an alliance, partnership, or union
of disparate peoples or individuals
governor-general: a governor who rules
over a large territory and employs deputy
governors to oversee subdivided regions
coup: a quick seizure of power or a sudden
attack
customary law: a law created by the tradi-
tions of a community but never officially
declared in force 
■ ■ ■  
regime: a type of government, or, the gov-
ernment in power in a region

coup, led by Brigadier General Murtala Mohammed (1938–1976). Although
General Mohammed had a popular following, he was killed in an abortive military
coup six months into his regime. Lieutenant-General Olusegun Obasanjo, his
deputy and chief of the armed forces, escaped and was immediately installed as the
head of state.
Aside from increasing the number of Nigerian states to nineteen, the
Obasanjo government embarked on and successfully executed a transition
program that included the lifting of prohibition on political parties and political
activities and the 
promulgation
of a new constitution in 1979. The regime
formally handed power to a civilian government on October 1, 1979, ending
thirteen years of military rule that began in 1966.
The Second Republic began with the controversial elections of 1979. The
National Party of Nigeria, led by Alhaji Shehu Shagari ( b. 1925), won a third of the
seats in the house, senate, and state assemblies. A legal controversy erupted
when it obtained the mandatory 25 percent of the vote in twelve rather than thir-
teen of the nineteen states. The Unity Party of Nigeria, led by Chief Obafemi
Awolowo, and other smaller parties launched a legal challenge to Shagari’s
victory, but the Nigerian Supreme Court upheld the election.
Shagari was deposed in a bloodless military coup, led by Major-General
Muhammadu Buhari ( b. 1942)—a former military governor of Borno and
federal commissioner for petroleum during Obasanjo’s regime—on December
31, 1983. With this coup, Nigeria began another sixteen years of military rule
that witnessed coups and countercoups, programs and unfilled promises of
civilian rule, and political repression and abuse of human rights unprecedented
in Nigeria’s history.
The most notorious of the military regime during this period was the regime
of Sanni Abacha (1943–1998) who seized power on November 17, 1993, following
the resignation of General Ibrahim Babangida (b. 1941). Abacha deposed the civil-
ian caretaker government that Babangida had set up to replace him following the
controversial 1993 national election, and he arrested and jailed Moshood Abiola
(1937–1998), a southerner and the declared winner of the election. During
Abacha’s six years in office, repression and political assassinations escalated to
unprecedented levels, culminating in the execution of environmental activist Ken
Saro-Wiwa (1941–1995) and his colleagues in November 1995.
Abacha died mysteriously in 1999. His successor, General Abdulsalam
Abubakar ( b. 1942), quickly set a transition process that led the country back to
democratic rule. After a series of elections, retired General Olusegun Obasanjo,
a former head of state who himself had been a political prisoner under Abacha,
was declared the new democratically elected president, and he took his place as
the new civilian president on May 29, 1999.
P O L I T I C A L   L I F E
Nigeria continues to be racked by social and religious strife. The country actu-
ally saw a sharp upsurge in political violence after the Third Republic was created,
including riots over the imposition of Islamic Shari’a law in Muslim-dominated
northern region and violent attacks in the Niger Delta area by communities
demanding an equal share of the nation’s oil wealth. The government’s response
to these events, which have claimed hundreds if not thousands of lives, has been
equally harsh. Freedom House, an independent advocacy foundation, has ranked
Nigeria as “partially free” since 1999 based on continuing reports of serious viola-
tions by the security forces, political assassinations, and 
extrajudicial
killings by
vigilante groups.
202
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
N i g e r i a
promulgation: an official declaration,
especially that a law can start being 
enforced
■ ■ ■  
extrajudicial: outside the legal system; lacking
the legitimating authority of the government

S O C I O E C O N O M I C   C O N D I T I O N S
Poor macroeconomic management, inadequate infrastructure, corruption,
and political instability have continued to make Nigeria’s living standards and
quality of life among the lowest in the world. Economic stoppages and strikes are
common, and unemployment and inflation have remained high. The 2003 report
of the Index of Economic Freedom ranked the Nigerian economy the sixteenth
lowest in the world and placed the county in the 140
th
position out of 156.
Despite rich natural resources—Nigeria is the world’s seventh largest oil
exporter with huge reserves of mineral and agricultural resources and abundant
manpower—poverty is widespread, and the nation’s ports, roads, and water and
power systems are in extreme disrepair.
Nigeria’s pervasive poverty and dilapidated infrastructure have occurred in
spite of an estimated $320 billion earned from oil export between 1970 and
1999. In the early 2000s much of the nation’s wealth continued to be concen-
trated in the hands of the elites through corruption and inflated government
contract prices. According to Transparency International, in 2004 Nigeria was
the third most corrupt country in the world.
For the average citizen, the extreme difficulty of living day-to-day is made
more difficult by a high incidence of armed robberies and lack of personal safety.
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
203
N i g e r i a
DURBAR FESTIVAL DANCERS IN KADUNA, NIGERIA.
Dating back hundreds of years, the traditional Nigerian Durbar (military parade) festival is
the finale to the Muslim festivals Id el Fitri (End of Ramadan) and Id el Kabir (Feast of Sacrifice) and celebrates the emir with time-honored
dances and a parade of ornate horsemen that travel to the emir’s palace in Kano. 
(SOURCE: © HULTON-DEUTSCH COLLECTION/CORBIS)

Nigeria in 2002 ranked at the near bottom among the nations of the world (155
out of 177) in the United Nation’s Human Development Index, which combines
three measures of human development: living a long life, being educated, and
having a decent standard of living.
P R O S P E C T S   F O R   N I G E R I A
At the dawn of independence, Nigerians and outside observers alike
thought that Nigeria, black Africa’s richest and potentially powerful state, was
destined to play a leadership role on the African continent. More than half a
century after independence, the country has been unable to live up to its prom-
ise. Decades of 
autocratic
rule, economic mismanagement, official corruption,
and regional and sectarian conflicts have weakened the Nigerian state and
rendered it incapable of delivering even the most minimal services.
Yet, there are signs that Nigeria may yet achieve the status that many, at
independence, expected. The emergence of democratic government has
brought about restructuring programs and policies designed to improve the
nation’s economic health. And, despite the pervasiveness of military rule in
Nigeria’s independent history, many of the fundamental building blocks of
a democratic state have remained: a relatively free and vocal press, a well-
established legal system, active and courageous human rights organizations,
numerous centers of learning and research, a very vibrant intellectual and
artistic life, and a relatively well-educated citizenry.
See also:
Cameroon; Dictatorship; Federalism; Transitional Political Systems.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Aborisade, Oladimeji, and Robert J. Mundt. Politics in Nigeria, 2nd ed. New York:
Longman, 2002.
Freedom House. “Nigeria.” Freedom in the World 2004. New York: Freedom House,
2004.
Ͻhttp://www.freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/2004/countryratings/
nigeria.htm
Ͼ.
Hale, Briony. “Nigeria’s Economy Dominated by Oil.” BBC News Online, January 16,
2002.
Ͻhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1763464.stmϾ.
The Heritage Foundation. 2005 Index of Economic Freedom. Washington, DC: Heritage
Foundation, 2005. 
Ͻhttp://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.
cfm?id=Nigeria
Ͼ.
Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. “Nigeria: Government and Politics”. U.S. Library of Congress
Country Studies. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 2004. 
Ͻhttp://lcweb2.loc.
gov/frd/cs/ngtoc.html
Ͼ.
Transparency International. TI Corruption Perceptions Index 2004. Berlin, Germany:
Transparency International, 2004. 
Ͻhttp://www.transparency.org/cpi/2004/cpi2004.
en.html#cpi2004
Ͼ.
United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report 2004. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2004. 
Ͻhttp://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/Ͼ.
U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. “Nigeria.”
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2004. 
Ͻhttp://www.state.gov/
g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41620.htm
Ͼ.
Ayo Ogundele
204
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
N i g e r i a
autocracy: a political system in which one
individual has absolute power
■ ■ ■  

Non-governmental Organizations 
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can best be understood as part of
the spectacular growth in the past few decades of “third-sector” organizations,
so called because they are different from the first sector (government) and the
second sector ( business). Instead of being formed primarily for profit-making
purposes or brought into being simply by a government decision to extend
its reach, third-sector organizations reflect the organized efforts of citizens moti-
vated by social, religious, or ideological concerns for action.