Halyna D. Malyk Speech Acts and Events

Directive Formula Types

Formula type	Addressee	Syntactic type	Primary intent	Surface SP	Token
Need/desire statement – S asserts need/want	Subordinates	Declara-tive sentence	Directive action	Expres-sive	I want X I need two more copies.
Imperatives
Simple imperative – S commands an action of hearer	Subordinates or familiar equals; S may have the right to tell H to do smth	Impera-tive	Directive action	Direc-tive	Leave me alone
“You” imperative	Subordinates	Impera-tive	Directive action	Direc-tive	You get the milk.
Deleted imperative	Subordinates or familiar equals		Directive action		Coffee, black.
Attention-getters			Directive action		Please
Post-posed tags	Familiar equals		Directive action		Take some of these, will you?
Rising intonation	Familiar equals		Directive action		Give me a copy?
Imbedded imperatives – command is embedded in another linguistic frame			Directive action
Can/ could/ would you do?	Unfamiliar people; people who fiffer in rank or who are physically distant; someone who is in his/her own territory; someone whose willingness to comply is in doubt	Interro-gative	Directive action	Direc-tive	1.Would you hand me that chart, please? 2.Can you move your bag over there? 3.How about bringing me a Pepsi when you go to lunch?
Imbedded imperative – Let’s do	Subordinates or familiar equals	Impera-tive	Directive action	Direc-tive	Let’s place an order with them
Permission directive	Someone who might not comply; also used when there is an obstacle to compliance		Directive action		May I have X? Can I have my notes back?
Question directive – S asks a Q, indirectly implyinh action of H			Directive action		Is there any X? Do you have X?
Hint – S hints a request	Persons with shared rules such as members of the family, people living together, work groups	Any	Directive action	Asser-tion/ Any	I don’t see X here. What about the X?

Commissives

Commit, pledge, undertake, engage, promise, hypothecate, guarantee, threaten, vow, avow, swear, assure, certify, accept, agree, consent, acquiesce, abide, reject, refuse, renounce, offer, counter-offer, bid, rebid, tender, dedicate, wager, contract, covenant, subscribe

Refusal is called a negative commissive. The most common refusal formula is an emphatic statement, a regret statement, and an excuse.

Classification of refusals

(After Pragmatic Transfer in ESL Refusals

by L.M. Beebe, T.Takahashi, R. Uliss-Weltz)

1. 
   Direct
   
   1. 
      Performative (I refuse …)
      
   2. 
      Nonperformative statement
      
      1. 
         "No"
         
      2. 
         negative willingness/ability (I cant. I won't. I don't think so)
         
2. 
   Indirect
   
   1. 
      Statement of regret (I'm sorry… I feel terrible…)
      
   2. 
      Wish (I wish I could)
      
   3. 
      Excuse, reason, explanation
      
   4. 
      
      
   5. 
      Statement of alternative
      
      1. 
         I can do X instead of Y (I'd rather… I'd prefer…)
         
      2. 
         Why don't you do X instead of Y (Why don't you ask someone else?)
         
   6. 
      Set conditions for future or past exceptence (If you had asked me earlier, I would …)
      
   7. 
      Promise of future acceptance (I'll do it next time. I promise I will. Next time perhaps.)
      
   8. 
      Statement of principle (I never do business with friends)
      
   9. 
      Statement of philosophy (One can't be too careful)
      
   10. 
       Attempt to dissuade interlocutor
       
       1. 
          Threat or statement of negative consequences to the requester (I won't be any help tonight)
          
       2. 
          Guilt trip (waitress to customers who want to sit a while "I can't make a living off people who just order coffee")
          
       3. 
          Criticize the request/requester (statement of negative feeling or opinion; insult/attack (Who do you think you are? That's a terrible idea!)
          
       4. 
          Request for help, empathy, and assistance by dropping or holding the request.
          
       5. 
          Let interlocutor off the hook (Don't worry about it. )
          
       6. 
          Self-defense (I'm trying my best. I'm doing all I can)
          
   11. 
       Acceptance that functions as a refusal
       
       1. 
          Unspecific or indefinite reply
          
       2. 
          Lack of enthusiasm
          
   12. 
       Avoidance
       
       1. 
          Nonverbal
          
          1. 
             Silence
             
          2. 
             Hesitation
             
          3. 
             Do nothing
             
          4. 
             Physical departure
             
       2. 
          Verbal
          
          1. 
             Topic switch
             
          2. 
             Joke
             
          3. 
             Repetition of part of request, etc. (Monday?)
             
          4. 
             Postponent (I'll think about it)
             
          5. 
             Hedging (Gee, I don't know. I'm not sure)
             

Representatives

Assert, reassert, negate, deny, correct, claim, affirm, state, disclaim, declare, tell, suggest, guess, hypothesize, conjecture, postulate, predict, forecast, foretell, prophesy, vaticinate, report, retrodict, warn, forewarn, advise, alert, alarm, remind, describe, inform, reveal, divulge, divulgate, notify, insinuate, sustain, insist, maintain, assure, aver, avouch, certify, attest, swear, testify, agree, disagree, asent, dissent, acquisce, object, recognize, acknowlwdge, admit, confess, concede, recant, criticize, blame, accuse, calumniate, reprimand, castigate, denounce, boast, complain, lament

Declaratives

declare, renounce, disclaim, disown, resign, repudiate, disavow, retract, abdicate, abjure, deny, disinherit, yield, surrender, capitulate, approve, confirm, sanction, ratify, homologate, bless, curse, dedicate, consecrate, disapprove, stipulate, name, call, define, abbreviate, nominate, authorize, license, install, appoint, establish, institute, inaugurate, convene, convoke, open, close, suspend, adjourn, terminate, dissolve, denounce, vote, veto, enact, legislate, promulgate, decree, confer, grant, bestow, accord, cede, rule, adjudge, adjudicate, condemn, sentence, damn, clear, acqui, disculpate, exonerate, pardon, forgive, absolve, cancell, annul, abolish, abrogate, revoke, repeal, rescind, retract, sustain, bequeath, baptize, excommunicate.

Expressives

approve, compliment, praise, laud, extol, plaudit, appaud, acclaim, brag, boast, complain, disapprove, blame, reprove, deplore, protest, grieve, mourn, lament, rejoice, cheer, boo, condole, congratulate, thank, apologize, greet, welcome.