Handbook of psychology volume 7 educational psychology
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- Information Processing Theory
- Theoretical Formulations 63
- Comprehension Monitoring
- TABLE 4.1 Social Cognitive Model of the Development of Self-Regulatory Competence
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Theoretical Formulations 61 Another type of self-instruction takes the form of state- ments that serve as discriminative stimuli to guide behavior. Self-instructional statements have been used to teach a vari- ety of academic, social, and motor skills. Strategy instruction is an effective means of enhancing comprehension and achievement beliefs among remedial readers. Schunk and Rice (1987) taught remedial readers the following strategy, and they verbalized the individual steps prior to applying them to reading comprehension passages: • What do I have to do? • Read the questions. • Read the passage to find out what it is mostly about. • Think about what the details have in common. • Think about what would make a good title. • Reread the story if I don’t know the answer to a question. Verbalizing statements keeps students focused on a task, which may be especially beneficial for learners with attention deficits. Kosiewicz, Hallahan, Lloyd, and Graves (1982) used the following self-instruction procedure to improve the hand- writing of a student with learning disabilities: • Say aloud the word to be written. • Say the first syllable. • Name each of the letters in that syllable three times. • Repeat each letter as it is written down. • Repeat Steps 2 through 4 for each succeeding syllable. Self-Reinforcement Self-reinforcement is the process whereby people provide themselves with reinforcement contingent on performing a response, and the reinforcement increases the likelihood of future responding (Mace et al., 1989). Much research shows that reinforcement contingencies improve academic per- formance (Bandura, 1986), but it is unclear whether self- reinforcement is more effective than externally administered reinforcement (such as that given by the teacher). Studies investigating self-reinforcement often contain problems (Brigham, 1982; Martin, 1980). In academic settings, the re- inforcement contingency too often is set in a context that in- cludes instruction and classroom rules. Students typically do not work on materials when they choose but rather when told to do so by the teacher. Students may stay on task primarily because of the teacher’s classroom control rather than be- cause of reinforcement. Self-reinforcement is hypothesized to be an effective com- ponent of self-regulated behavior (O’Leary & Dubey, 1979), but the reinforcement may be more important than its agent. Although self-reinforcement may enhance behavioral main- tenance over time, during the acquisition of self-regulatory skills, explicitly providing reinforcement may be more important. Information Processing Theory Information processing theories view learning as the encod- ing of information in long-term memory (LTM). Learners ac- tivate relevant portions of LTM and relate new knowledge to existing information in working memory (WM). Organized, meaningful information is easier to integrate with existing knowledge and more likely to be remembered. From an information processing perspective, self- regulation is roughly equivalent to metacognitive awareness (Gitomer & Glaser, 1987). This awareness includes knowl- edge of the task (what is to be learned and when and how it is to be learned), as well as self-knowledge of personal capabil- ities, interests, and attitudes. Self-regulated learning requires learners to have knowledge about task demands, personal qualities, and strategies for completing the task. Metacognitive awareness also includes procedural knowl- edge or productions that regulate learning of the material by monitoring one’s level of learning, deciding when to take a different task approach, and assessing readiness for a test. Self-regulatory (metacognitive) activities are types of control processes under the learner’s direction. They facilitate pro- cessing and movement of information through the system. The basic (superordinate) unit of self-regulation may be a
to reach the goal and the monitoring serves to ascertain whether the learner is making progress (Anderson, 1990). This system compares the present situation against a standard and attempts to reduce discrepancies. An early formulation was Miller, Galanter, and Pribham’s (1960) test-operate-test-exit (TOTE) model. The initial test phase compares the present situation against a standard. If they are the same, no further action is required. If they do not match, control is switched to the operate function to change behavior to resolve the discrepancy. One perceives a new state of affairs that is compared with the standard during the second test phase. Assuming that these match, one exits the model. If they do not match, further behavioral changes and comparisons are necessary. To illustrate, assume that Jenny is reading her history text and stops periodically to summarize what she has read. She recalls information from LTM pertaining to what she has read and compares the information to her internal standard of an adequate summary. This standard also may be a production 62 Self-Regulation and Learning characterized by rules (e.g., be precise, include information on all topics covered, be accurate) developed through experi- ences in summarizing. She continues reading if her summary matches her standard. If they do not, she evaluates where the problem lies (in her understanding of the second para- graph) and executes a correction strategy (rereads the second paragraph). Information processing models differ, but two central fea- tures are (a) comparisons of present activity against standards and (b) steps taken to resolve discrepancies (Carver & Scheier, 1982). A key aspect of these models is knowledge of learning strategies, including their procedures and condi- tional knowledge of when and why to employ the strategies. Learning Strategies Learning strategies are cognitive plans oriented toward suc- cessful task performance (Pressley et al., 1990; Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). Strategies include such activities as select- ing and organizing information, rehearsing material to be learned, relating new material to information in memory, and enhancing meaningfulness of material. Strategies also in- clude techniques to create and maintain a positive learning climate—for example, ways to overcome test anxiety, en- hance self-efficacy, appreciate the value of learning, and de- velop positive outcome expectations and attitudes (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986). Use of strategies is an integral part of self- regulated learning because strategies give learners better con- trol over information processing. From an information-processing perspective, learning involves meaningful integration of new material into LTM networks. To encode (learn) information, learners attend to relevant task information and transfer it from the sensory register to WM. Learners also activate related knowledge in LTM. In WM, learners build connections (links) between new information and prior knowledge and integrate these links into LTM networks. Learning strategies assist encoding in each of these phases. One important strategy is rehearsal, which includes re- peating information, underlining, and summarizing. Repeat- ing information aloud, subvocally (whispering), or covertly is an effective procedure for tasks requiring rote memoriza- tion. To learn the names of the 50 state capitals, Tim might say the name of each state followed by the name of its capi- tal. Rehearsal also can help learners memorize lines to a song or poem and or learn English translations of foreign-language words.
Rehearsal that repeats information by rote does not link in- formation with what one already knows. Rehearsal also does not organize information in a hierarchical or other fashion. As a consequence, LTM does not store rehearsed information in any meaningful sense, and retrieval after some time is often difficult. Rehearsal can be useful for complex learning, but it must involve more than merely repeating information. One useful rehearsal procedure is underlining (highlighting), which im- proves learning if employed judiciously (Snowman, 1986). When too much material is underlined, underlining loses its effectiveness because less-important material is underlined along with more-important ideas. Underlined material should represent points most relevant to learning goals. Summarizing is another popular rehearsal procedure. In summaries (oral or written), students put into their own words the main ideas expressed in the text. As with underlin- ing, summarizing loses its effectiveness if it includes too much information (Snowman, 1986). Limiting the length of students’ summaries forces them to identify main ideas. A second class of learning strategies is elaboration, which means using imagery, mnemonics, questioning, and note taking to expand information by adding something to make learning more meaningful. Imagery produces a mental picture, which often is more meaningful than a verbal de- scription. Mnemonics make information meaningful by relat- ing it to what one knows. Acronyms combine the first letters of the material to be remembered into a meaningful word; for example, HOMES is an acronym for the five Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). Sentence mnemonics use the first letters of the material to be learned as the first letters of words in a sentence (e.g., every good boy does fine is a sentence mnemonic for the notes on the treble clef staff: E, G, B, D, and F). The method of loci is a mnemonic in which learners imag- ine a familiar scene, such as a room in their house, after which they take a mental walk around the room and stop at each prominent object. Each new item to be learned is paired mentally with one object in the room. Assuming that the room contains (in order) a table, a lamp, and a TV, and that Tammy must buy butter, milk, and apples at a grocery store, she might first imagine butter on the table, a milky-colored lamp, and apples on top of the TV. To recall the grocery list, she mentally retraces the path around the room and recalls the appropriate object at each stop.
read text and ask themselves questions. To address higher order learning outcomes, learners might ask How does this in-
During note taking learners construct meaningful para- phrases of the most important ideas. While taking notes,
Theoretical Formulations 63 students might integrate new textual material with other in- formation in personally meaningful ways. To be effective, notes must not reflect verbatim textual information. Copying material is a form of rehearsal and may improve recall, but it is not elaboration. The intent of note taking is to integrate and apply information. Another learning strategy is organization. Two useful or- ganization techniques are outlining and mapping. Outlining requires that learners establish headings. One way to teach outlining is to use a text with headings set off from the text or in the margins, along with embedded (boldface or italic) headings interspersed throughout the text. Another way is to have students identify topic sentences and points that relate to each sentence. Simply telling students to outline a passage does not facilitate learning if students do not understand the procedure.
because it involves identifying important ideas and their in- terrelationship. Concepts or ideas are identified, categorized, and related to one another. A map is conceptually akin to a propositional network, because mapping involves creating a hierarchy, with main ideas or superordinate concepts listed at the top, followed by supporting points, examples, and subor- dinate concepts. Comprehension Monitoring Comprehension monitoring helps learners determine whether they are properly applying declarative and procedural knowl- edge to material to be learned, evaluate whether they under- stand the material, decide whether their strategy is effective or whether a better strategy is needed, and know why strat- egy use will improve learning. Self-questioning, rereading, checking consistencies, and paraphrasing are monitoring processes (Baker & Brown, 1984; Borkowski & Cavanaugh, 1979; Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1983). Some textual material periodically provides students with questions about content. Students who answer these questions as they read the material are engaging in self-questioning. When questions are not provided, students must generate their own. As a means of training, teachers can instruct students to stop pe- riodically while reading and ask themselves questions (i.e., who, what, when, where, why, how).
questioning; when students cannot answer questions about the text or otherwise doubt their understanding, these cues prompt them to reread. Checking for consistencies involves determining whether the text is internally consistent—that is, whether parts of the text contradict others and whether con- clusions that are drawn follow from what has been discussed. A belief that textual material is inconsistent serves as a cue for rereading to determine whether the author is inconsistent or whether the reader has failed to comprehend the content. Students who periodically stop and paraphrase material are checking their level of understanding. Being able to para- phrase is a cue that rereading is unnecessary (Paris & Oka, 1986).
Developmental Theory Developmental theorists conceive of self-regulation in terms of progressive cognitive changes in learners that allow them to exert greater control over their thoughts, feelings, and ac- tions (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1994). It involves such actions as beginning and ending actions, altering the frequency and intensity of verbal and motor acts, delaying action on a goal, and acting in socially approved ways (Kopp, 1982). Developmental Periods Kopp (1982) presented a framework that links developmental periods with behaviors and cognitive mediators. From birth to approximately 3 months, control is limited to states of arousal and activation of early, rudimentary behaviors (e.g., reaching). During this neurophysiological modulation stage, the important mediators are maturation and parent routines (e.g., feeding) and interactions. Sensorimotor modulation oc- curs from 3 to 9 months and is marked by changes in ongoing behaviors in response to events and environmental stimuli. Toward the end of the first year (9–12 months), the earliest form of voluntary control over behavior appears in the form of infant compliance to caregivers’ requests. The mediators are receptivity of social behaviors and the quality of the mother-child relationship. Impulse control appears during the second year of life (12–18 months); it is characterized by an awareness of social demands of situations and the initiation, maintenance, and cessation of physical acts and communications. Signs of in- tentionality and goal-directed actions become apparent. The second year is critical for the shifting of external to internal control of behavior (Kochanska, Tjebkes, & Forman, 1998). Parental discipline expands and child compliance is linked with future internalization of rules. The self-control phase, which emerges during the third year (24–36 months), is characterized by greater reactivity to adult commands and increased communicative and social interactions through the growth of language and the directive functions of speech. Internalization of adult guidance be- comes increasingly prevalent. Finally, children enter a period of self-regulation during the fourth year (36 months and
64 Self-Regulation and Learning older). Milestones of this period are adoption of rules that guide behavior, greater internalization of guidance by others, emergence of cognitive mediation of behavior (e.g., thought processes), and adaptation of behavior to changes in environ- mental demands. Schunk and Zimmerman (1997) postulated that self- regulation develops initially from social sources and shifts to self sources in a series of levels (Table 4.1). At the outset, novice learners acquire learning strategies most rapidly from teaching, social modeling, task structuring, and encourage- ment (Zimmerman & Rosenthal, 1974). At this observational level, many learners can induce the major features of learning strategies from observing models; however, most of them also need practice to fully incorporate the skill into their behavioral repertoires. Motoric accuracy can be improved if models provide guidance, feedback, and social reinforcement during practice. During participant (mastery) modeling (Bandura, 1986), models repeat aspects of the strategy and guide enactment based on learners’ imitative accuracy. Learners attain an emulative level of skill when their performances approximate the general form of the model’s. Observers are not copying the model; rather, they imitate gen- eral patterns or styles. For example, they may imitate the type of question that the model asks but not mimic the model’s words.
The source of learning skills is primarily social for the first two levels of academic competence but shifts to self- influences at more advanced levels. The third, self-controlled level is characterized by learners’ ability to use strategies in- dependently while performing transfer tasks. Students’ use of strategies becomes internalized but is affected by representa- tional standards of modeled performances (e.g., covert im- ages and verbal meanings) and self-reinforcement processes (Bandura & Jeffery, 1973). When students reach adolescence, they need to attain a self-regulated level of academic skill so they can systemati- cally adapt strategies to changes in personal and situational conditions (Bandura, 1986). At this level, learners initiate use of strategies, incorporate adjustments based on features of situations, and are motivated to achieve by goals and percep- tions of self-efficacy. Learners choose when to use particular strategies and adapt them to changing conditions with little or no guidance from models. Triadic reciprocality is evident throughout the phases. Social factors in the environment influence behaviors and personal factors, which in turn affect the social environment. In the early stages of learning, teachers who observe prob- lems in learners’ performances offer correction, learners who do not fully comprehend how to perform a skill or strategy at the emulative level may ask teachers for assistance, and learners’ performances affect their self-efficacy. At more ad- vanced levels, learners mentally and overtly practice skills and seek out teachers, coaches, and tutors to help refine their skills. Social influences do not disappear with advancing skill acquisition. Although self-controlled and self-regulated learners use social sources less frequently, they nonetheless continue to rely on such sources (Zimmerman, 2000). Self- regulation does not mean social independence. This is not a stage model and learners may not necessarily progress in this fashion. Students without access to relevant models may nonetheless learn on their own. For example, one may learn to play a musical instrument by ear or develop a unique method for correctly solving mathematical word problems. Despite the frequent success of self-teaching, it fails to reap the benefits of the social environment on learn- ing. Furthermore, failing to use the social environment may limit overall skill acquisition unless learners possess good self-regulatory skills. In summary, this four-level analysis of self-regulatory de- velopment extends from acquiring knowledge of learning skills (observation), to using these skills (emulation), to inter- nalizing them (self-control), and finally to using them adap- tively (self-regulation). Although this conceptualization results from socialization research, it is useful in guiding instructional efforts to teach students how to acquire and self-regulate acad- emic learning (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). Private Speech Cognitive developmental theory establishes a strong link be- tween private speech and the development of self-regulation (Berk, 1986; Frauenglass & Diaz, 1985). Private speech refers to the set of speech phenomena that has a self-regulatory function but is not socially communicative (Fuson, 1979). The historical impetus derives in part from work by Pavlov (1927), who distinguished the first (perceptual) from the sec- ond (linguistic) signal systems. Pavlov realized that animal
Level of Development Social Influences Self Influences Observational. Models.
Verbal description. Emulative. Social guidance. Feedback. Self-controlled. Internal standards. Self-reinforcement. Self-regulated. Self-regulatory processes. Self-efficacy beliefs.
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