History of Civilizations of Central Asia
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Contents Khakassia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Tuva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Altai
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Buriatia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 The Altai geographical region, which makes up the greater part of southern Siberia, com- prises the Sayan-Altai mountain system, the basin of the Upper Yenisei, the Minusinsk basin, the Abakan steppe, Koibal steppe and Gorny Altai. 1 The native inhabitants of the Sayan-Altai are the Turkic-speaking Tuvans – the Sagai, Kacha, Koibal, Kyzyl and Beltir – and Altais – the Altai-kizhi, Kumanda, Chelkan, Tubalar, Teleut, Shor, Teles and Telengit. The eastern part of southern Siberia is inhabited by the Mongol-speaking Buriats, who settled in this territory at the end of the thirteenth century. Khakassia In keeping with the Russian empire’s administrative reforms drawn up in 1822 by Mikhail Speransky, 2 East Siberian governorate-general included an independent Yenisei guberniya with Krasnoyarsk as its centre. It comprised five okrugs (districts), of which three, * See Maps 1 and
2 . 1 The Gorny (‘mountainous’) Altai, administratively the southern part of the Altai region (kray) and now called the Altai Republic. [Trans.] 2 Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky, governor-general of Siberia, 1819–22. [Trans.] 319 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Khakassia Minusinsk, Kansk and Achinsk, embraced the whole territory inhabited by the Khakass people. A document regulating the relationship between the authorities and the non-Russian population, the ‘Statute on the Administration of the Inorodtsy’, categorized the inorodtsy (native population, lit. ‘people of different birth’) as ‘settled’, ‘nomadic’ or ‘roaming’. The Khakass, who like many other peoples of tsarist Russia were called Tatars, 3 were treated as ‘nomadic’, for whom the following structure of authority was established: the ulus (clan), headed by a noyan (prince), and the Steppe duma (assembly), which was the highest level of administrative authority of the nomadic inorodtsy. Four Steppe dumas were set up for the Khakass – Kacha duma, Koibal duma in Minusinskokrug, Kyzyl- Achinsk duma and the duma of United Miscellaneous Tribes. The name Khakass, taken from medieval Chinese chronicles and reflecting the Chinese pronunciation of the name of the Yenisei Kyrgyz, 4 was officially adopted in the early years of Soviet power as the single designation for the whole native population of the region (kray). After the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, the border areas of the Russian empire inhabited by national minorities were actively brought into the process of economic and social development. This was powerfully influenced by the mass settlement in Siberia of Russian peasants from European Russia. Besides peasants, qualified workers were invited from Siberian towns and factories in the Urals to areas of the Sayan-Altai that were rich in mineral resources. The development of industry was also promoted by the participation of exiled settlers, at that time predominantly participants in the Polish rebellion of 1863. As a result of the influx of Russian settlers, the population of Minusinsk okrug increased by more than 50 per cent between 1861 and 1891 to reach 135,200. Changes in the ethnic situation led to the need for change in the region’s administrative structure. The Steppe dumas had become outdated and were abolished. They were replaced by inorodtsy boards (upravas). By the end of the nineteenth century, the Khakass clans had been placed under the jurisdiction of three inorodtsy boards – Abakan, Kyzyl and Askiz, and two districts (uezds) – Achinsk and Minusinsk. Despite the introduction of these administrative divisions, the Khakass continued with their traditional clan and tribal divisions (seoks). Feudal clan relations remained important in the public life of the native population until the end of the nineteenth century. The administrative changes led to some limitation of local self-government. Moreover, the Khakass had now become a ‘taxable class of the inorodtsy’ and were obliged to pay yasak (tribute, tax) in money or furs to the tsar’s treasury and bear the expense of maintaining public buildings, officials and the clergy.
3 Abakan Tatars or Minusinsk Tatars. [Trans.] 4 They inhabited the territory of Mongolia and Tuva from 840 to 920. [Trans.] 320 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Khakassia In the second half of the nineteenth century the majority of the region’s native popu- lation adopted a settled way of life. Besides livestock-raising, the traditional occupation of the Khakass, crop-growing became more and more widespread. Under the influence of Russian agricultural methods the area sown to crops grew rapidly. Over 70 per cent of the Sagai – the largest ethnic group of the Khakass – took up land cultivation, vegetable growing and bee-keeping in addition to livestock-raising. The replacement of nomadism by settled life led to changes in the traditional extensive livestock-raising: the herds of cat- tle increased in size, land was set aside for hay-making, winter quarters for cattle were built and artificial irrigation was developed. Farm and mine production was now developed for the internal market, not just for self-sufficiency. The increased numbers of the pop- ulation engaged in industry with agricultural produce, primarily from livestock-raising, promoted a rationalization of the economy of the Khakass and accelerated the develop- ment of commodity-money exchange in the region. The emerging situation accelerated the decay of patriarchal-feudal relations among the Khakass. The settlement of Russian peasants from European Russia, poverty-stricken and land- less Ukrainians, Finns and Estonians, as well as representatives of numerous religious sects persecuted by the religious and secular authorities, which became a large-scale phenom- enon in the first half of the nineteenth century, was of great importance for the opening up of unused land and the enrichment of the local culture of land management. There were changes in the material culture of the Khakass. The type of housing changed: yurts covered with felt or birch bark gave way to yurt-shaped log cabins and plank huts. The traditional clothing, footwear and food of the Khakass began to acquire Russian elements. The settlement in Khakassia (the Khakass region) of political exiles from the indus- trial centres of Russia was of great importance to the local population. Mines and gold mines developed rapidly. The Abakan iron mine and foundry, from which the settlement of Abaza derives its name, 5 became the largest industrial enterprise in the region and famous throughout Siberia. Building was done by workers invited from industrial centres in the Urals, exiled participants in the Polish rebellion, Russian settlers and the local inhabitants, the Khakass (130 of whom were working at Abaza in 1890). Moreover, copper smelters and salt works were built in Khakassia and gold mining, including industrial extraction, was actively pursued. The teachers of the Khakass at the beginning of the nineteenth century were exiles and priests. Khakass children began to read and write in Russian at parish schools in the second half of the century. At the end of the nineteenth century, priests drew up for the Khakass their first alphabet with 34 letters based on the Cyrillic alphabet. At the beginning 5 In Russian, Abakanskiy zavod. [Trans.] 321 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Khakassia of the twentieth century, despite the changed demographic situation in the territory and the widespread use of Russian, practically the whole (Khakass) population still spoke their own language. In the course of the nineteenth century all the Khakass adopted Orthodox Christianity. The last official baptism took place at the village of Askiz on 15 July 1876, when 3,003 peo- ple were baptized. The men were all christened Vladimir and the women Maria. Although missionary work had some success in the struggle against shamanism, 6 the majority of Siberian inorodtsy tried to combine the two religions. As noted by many researchers, the Khakass and Altais widely practised indigenous shamanism together with Christian rituals and at the beginning of the twentieth century shamanism still retained all its attributes. Minusinsk People’s Museum and its library, founded in 1877 by N. M. Martyanov, became the centre of cultural and scientific life in Khakassia. Many Russian and foreign scientists have studied the museum’s collections. The end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth were a period of active scientific study of the region. Expe- ditions of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Finno-Ugrian Scientific Society and the Yenisei Statistical Committee worked in Khakassia. The publications of the expeditions and of individual researchers of local lore are sources of enormous value and their scientific potential has not been exhausted to this day. Educated people and a scientific intelligentsia emerged among the Khakass. Nikolai Fedorovich Katanov, a Sagai Khakass, became a world-famous Turcologist. While holding an important post in the Russian state service, he made a fundamental contribution to the study of the philology, history and ethnology of the peoples of southern Siberia. Relations between the Khakass and the political exiles came to a head during the 1905 revolution. 7 In response to the rise of the national liberation movement, under the reforms introduced by Petr Stolypin 8 the inorodtsy boards were replaced in 1913 by volost’s (dis- trict jurisdictions of several parishes). The first legislative act published by the local Soviet authorities in April 1918 was the ‘Statute on Khakass Steppe Self-Government’. After a counter-revolution in Minusinsk uezd in June the same year, a Siberian Provisional Gov- ernment came to power and the statute was abolished. During the civil war (1918–20) the Soviet authorities in Khakassia not only fought against various units of the White Guards 6 The traditional Siberian form of spiritualism practised through ecstatic experience by a shaman. [Trans.] 7 The shooting of workers demonstrating for bread in St Petersburg in January 1905 led to widespread strikes and mob violence. [Trans.] 8 Petr Arkadiyevich Stolypin (1862–1911), prime minister of Russia from 1906 to 1911, when he was murdered. [Trans.] 322
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but also struggled against the local population’s resistance to the new order. 9 The Khakass were drawn into these events and fought on both sides. They are known to have partici- pated in the Red Partisan (communist guerrilla) movement and also to have helped Admi- ral Kolchak. 10 The cruel punishment administered by Red Army detachments to Kolchak’s units in Khakassia was widely publicized and even the Soviet authorities reacted to it negatively. The Khakass were unified administratively for the first time in 1923 on the formation of Khakass uezd, which in 1930 was renamed Khakass autonomous oblast’ (province). The next stage of Khakassia’s political development took place only recently, when on 3 July 1991 the Russian Supreme Soviet adopted a law making Khakassia a republic. During the Soviet period Khakassia became a developed industrial-agrarian and energy- producing region of Russia. Industrial development was in many ways a result of the great influx of population: famine victims from the Volga valley, inhabitants and industrial work- ers evacuated from territory occupied during the Great Patriotic War (1941–5) and the victims of mass repression, including ethnic Germans, Kalmuks (Mongols from the Caspian steppe) and Balts. By 1989 the Khakass accounted for only 12 per cent of the population of the autonomous province. The national movement in Khakassia developed at the end of the 1980s and a congress of the Khakass people was held in 1990. The political national organization of the Khakass, ‘Toon’ (the Vanguard), aims to preserve the ethnic group, maintain and develop its cultural heritage, increase the number of ‘national’ schools (where the language of instruction is Khakass) and use the Khakass language more widely (some functionaries are even discussing giving up the Cyrillic script in favour of the ancient runic script of the Türks). 11 Tuva On its relatively small territory 12 the natural features of Tuva combine various types of landscape: mountain-steppe in the west, centre and south, and mountain-taiga in the north and north-east. Natural conditions predetermined the formation of three cultural groups. In the mountain-steppe zone dwelt nomadic livestock-herders whose way of life was similar to that of the livestock-herding Mongol, Buriat and Khakass population. The eastern Toja 9 The Bolshevik revolution of November 1917 led to a prolonged struggle for power all over Russia between the Bolsheviks and their opponents, including the White Guards, army units loyal to the tsar. [Trans.] 10 Admiral Aleksandr Vasilyevich Kolchak, who styled himself the ‘Supreme Ruler of Russia’ in Omsk in November 1918, was executed by the Soviet authorities in Irkutsk in February 1920. [Trans.] 11 The runic script found on monuments of the Turkish khanate from 546 to 743 in Mongolia’s Orkhon valley and on the Yenisei. [Trans.] 12 Tuva has an area of 170,500 km 2 , Khakassia 61,900 km 2 and the Altai Republic 92,600 km 2 . [Trans.] 323 Contents
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Tuvans (named after Lake Toja) were engaged in hunting fur-bearing animals and herding reindeer. This economic activity was also pursued by the Tofalars, Shors and other ethnic groups dwelling in the mountain-taiga regions of the Sayan-Altai. The herder-hunters who lived on the border of the two natural zones and combined hunt- ing with pastoral livestock-herding were not numerous. The first group dwelt in felt yurts, while the second and third groups dwelt in chooms (tepees) which were covered with birch bark, larch bark or animal skins according to season. The herdsmen mainly raised sheep, cows and horses, more rarely yaks or camels. The livestock were maintained on natural grazing land the year round. This was no guarantee of stability and in the 1880s there were massive losses of livestock from starvation in the severe winters. Primitive cultiva- tion methods were improved considerably only after the arrival of Russian settlers. Hunting and trade occupied an important place in the economy. The constant demand for furs from the Manchu authorities and Russian traders led to the destruction of valuable species of wild animals. Tuva was incorporated into the Qing (Manchu) empire after the defeat of the Dzun- garian khanate. 13 However, this incorporation was in many ways only nominal since there were no Qing authorities on the territory of Tuva. The governor-general considered to be in charge of Tuvan and Mongol affairs was resident in Uliasutai ( Mongolia). The Tannu- Ola Tuvans were subjected to administrative-territorial division into five hoshuus (ban- ners), each led by a Mongol noyan appointed by the Chinese (i.e. Manchu) authorities. The Tuvans lived in these banners, in the domains of noyans in northern Mongolia and also nomadized in the Mongol Altai and Gorny Altai and on the southern slopes of the Tannu-Ola. 14 These administrative divisions remained practically unchanged until 1907. 15 Having divided up Tuvan lands into administrative banners, the Qing authorities placed these territories and their population under the control of hereditary rulers – Tuvan and Mongol feudal property owners. The Tuvans had no right to move from one banner to another. Tithes from the population were in the form of duties (albans), taxes to support officials (ündürügüs), or in the form of labour as shepherds for the feudal lord and care of his livestock. The poor were helped by rich Tuvans temporarily transferring livestock to them for grazing, with the right to use the dairy produce obtained. Social protest reached its peak in the period after the suppression of rebellions by the peoples of the Qing empire. In the 1870s and 1880s competition grew between Russian and Chinese trading posts for the leading position in the fur market in Tuva. The Qing authorities’ levies on the Tuvans 13 The khanate of the Oirats (western Mongols), eliminated in 1757. [Trans.] 14 These mountains formed the geographic boundary between Tuva and Mongolia but the international border now lies far to the south. [Trans.] 15 Russian and Mongol accounts of the administration of Tuva differ. [Trans.] 324 Contents
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grew and this aroused the dissatisfaction of the ordinary people of Tuva, the arats (herds- men). Chinese officials and rich herd-owners were attacked during large-scale demonstra- tions in 1876–8 and the rebellion of the ‘60 Heroes’ of 1883–5. 16 These rebellions were suppressed, but they played an important role in overcoming the archaic clan structure of Tuvan society and forming a common national self-awareness. Tuva was little affected by Christianization. Here the competition was between the Buddhist Lamaist clergy, living in numerous monasteries, and the shamans. Lamaism, unlike Christianity – without the intervention of the state authorities – began to make inroads against shamanism. Lamaism did not rely on state support and the lamas, unlike the Orthodox missionaries, did not enjoy legal privileges. Nonetheless Lamaism spread quickly among the Tuvans. Its spread was promoted with the help of Tibetan medicine, which enabled the lamas to compete successfully with the shamans. Unlike the Christian mission- aries, the lamas experienced no language difficulties in communication. Tuvan Lamaism demonstrated its flexibility: its doctrine was adapted to shamanism, which reflected the popular world outlook. Tripartition, the spiritualization of natural phenomena, the vital connection between human beings and the environment and the mediating role of the lamas and shamans determined the compatibility of the two faiths in people’s minds. The national liberation movement which began in Mongolia after the overthrow of the Manchu Qing dynasty (1911) was supported in Tuva. The Chinese trading posts were destroyed and the Chinese driven out of the country. In 1912 over 1,000 armed Tuvans joined the Mongols under the command of Magsarjav 17 in military operations against the Manchu-Chinese troops in western Mongolia. The fortified town of Kobdo (Hovd) was captured. The tsarist government played a waiting game and pursued a policy of nonintervention, although in diplomatic correspondence it did not conceal its intention, through the peaceful settlement of Russians in Uriankhai (as Tuva was then called), of ensuring its right to establish a protectorate and annex the territory to Russia. After a congress of banner representatives held in 1912, the amban-noyan Kombu- Dorju 18
the independence of Uriankhai and requesting Russian protection for Tuva. There was no official response at the time, as Russia was engaged in negotiations with China about the situation in Mongolia and it would have been risky to complicate them by discussion of 16 The ‘Aldan Maadyr’ against feudal oppression were rounded up and their leaders, the arat Sambazhyk and a local official named Dazhimaa, were beheaded. [Trans.] 17 Khatanbaatar Sandagdorjiin Magsarjav (1877–1927), Mongolian minister of the Western Border. [Trans.] 18 Prince (noyan) Gombodorj was the Mongolian governor (amban) of an aimag (league) of four banners ruled by hereditary Tuvan princes. [Trans.] 325
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the Uriankhai problem. 19 All the same, Russia set up administrative services in Tuva to observe the political situation in the region and care for settlers from Russia. The completion of the negotiations with China enabled Russia to activate its policy, which it was now keen to do, especially as some banner rulers had expressed the wish to be subordinated to the qutuqtu, 20 the spiritual leader of Mongolia. Russia’s change of atti- tude, and the danger of the Tuvans being split, moved the gün-noyan Buyan-Baldyrgy to send the tsar a new petition. He noted the historical fact that in 1616 the Tuvans nomadiz- ing in the Khemchik valley (western Tuva) had sworn an oath of allegiance to Russia before Vasily of Tyumen, the envoy of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov. In April 1914 the Uriankhai region was officially taken under Russian protection and its population was promised that the Buddhist faith would be preserved, although the borders of the region required clarification. 21 The peasant colonization of Tuva created sharp divisions between the Russian settlers and the Tuvans as well as between the older generation of Russian landowners in Tuva and the new landless settlers. At the same time, the Russian administration of Tuva developed and strengthened the region’s economic links. The building by Russian workers of the first town, Belotsarsk (now Kyzyl), 22 was an important event for the further colonization of the region. Immediately after the revolutionary events (of 1917) in Russia, a political struggle for the fate of the territory began in Tuva, where a regional soviet was active until mid-1918. At a joint session on 18 June 1918, a congress of the Russian and Tuvan population adopted an agreement on the self-determination of Tuva which included an article about the rights of Russian citizens. A counter-revolutionary coup in Minusinsk and the formation of the government of Admiral Kolchak brought about resistance in Tuva not only from political opponents but also from the arats of western Tuva, who staged a rebellion. The partisan movement expanded in the rear of Kolchak’s forces. A partisan army under the command of 19 In the Russian- Mongolian agreement (1912), Russia supported Outer Mongolia’s autonomy but rejected its claim on Uriankhai. The Russian-Chinese declaration of 1913 agreed to autonomy excluding Uriankhai, so Mongolia refused to recognize it. The Mongolian draft of the treaty of Kyakhta (1915, with Russia and China) included Uriankhai as part of Mongolia, but under Russian pressure it was deleted from the final text. [Trans.] 20 The ‘Living Buddha’ of Urga, Bogd Khan (Holy Emperor) of Autonomous Outer Mongolia. [Trans.] 21 In 1916 Buyan Badarkhüü, chief of Khemchik banner, the largest in Uriankhai, called on China to accept the submission of his banner. [Trans.] 22 Also called Khem-Beldyr from 1918 to 1926. [Trans.] 326 Contents
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A. D. Kravchenko 23 was obliged to withdraw into Tuva. The partisans occupied Belotsarsk and a decisive battle against Kolchak’s forces was fought in its suburbs on 29 August 1919. After the departure of the partisan army, the lack of a stable authority in Tuva led to a difficult situation: armed attacks were carried out against settlements by a Mongolian occupation detachment, by formations of Chinese and by Kolchak’s forces. In 1920 and 1921 units of the Red Army were brought into Tuva and, in joint actions with the par- tisan detachments of Sergei Kochetov 24 and detachments of Tuvan arats, the remnants of the interventionists 25 and counter-revolutionaries were destroyed. In August 1921 an All-Tuvan khural (assembly), 26 attended by delegations from Russia, Mongolia and the Far Eastern Secretariat of the Comintern (Communist International), proclaimed the inde- pendence of the Tuvan state – the People’s Republic of Tannu-Tuva. 27 The republic had been proclaimed and a start was made on the building of the state, but the feudal chiefs and clergy continued their actions against the new transformations. At sessions of the Great Khural (national assembly) of the Tuvan People’s Republic, feudal privileges were abolished and replaced by legislative order and constitutional norms. The state, economic and internal political measures of Soviet Russia were taken as the model and applied on the scale of the rather small republic. Among the most important events connected with the formation of the new national self-awareness were the creation of a Tuvan script 28 and the development of a national education programme, and the appearance of literary works by Tuvan authors, of which the most famous was the novel Word of an Arat by Salchak Toka. 29 When the Great Patriotic War began, recruiters from Tuva were sent to the front and assistance was organized in the form of foodstuffs and gifts for the troops. The first appeal 23 Aleksandr Deomidovich Kravchenko (1880–1924), Bolshevik who set up the Achinsk soviet in 1917. [Trans.] 24 Sergei Kuzmich Kochetov was a member of the Siberian Revolutionary Committee and later fought in the Great Patriotic War against Germany (1941–5). [Trans.] 25 The interventionist forces were the US, British, Japanese and other foreign troops sent into Siberia to aid the fight against the Bolsheviks in the civil war. [Trans.] 26 This was called the First Congress of Representatives of Tuvan Banners and was held at Sug-Baidzh near Atamanovka (later renamed Kochetovo). Kochetov and 17 other members of the Siberian Revolutionary Committee were among those present. [Trans.] 27 Tuva, the former Uriankhai (Tannu-Uriankhai), was called the People’s Republic of Tannu-Tuva from 1921 to 1926, when it became the Tuvan People’s Republic and was finally recognized by Mongolia. [Trans.] 28 The first alphabet of the Tuvan language, using Latin letters (some modified), was launched in 1931–2 to supplant the use of Mongolian (‘language of the oppressors’) and its classical script in Tuva. [Trans.] 29 Salchak Kalbakkhorekovich Toka (1901–73), Tuvan minister of culture, first secretary of the Tuvan People’s Revolutionary Party, from 1944 first secretary of the Tuva oblast’ committee of the CPSU (the Soviet Communist Party, which he had joined in 1929), later member of the CPSU Central Committee. [Trans.] 327
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by the Tuvan People’s Republic to the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet to join the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) was made in April 1941. Because of the beginning of the war the matter was postponed. The final adoption of a declaration on joining the USSR took place in 1944 at a session of the Little Khural (government council) of the Tuvan People’s Republic. 30 Altai The Turkic-speaking tribes of the Gorny Altai were absorbed into the Russian state in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The northern part of the Altai region was drawn into the process of the Russian advance into and conquest of Siberia, which met with resistance from the Kyrgyz and Dzungarian princes who had previously collected tribute from the population of this region. The southern part of the Altai was acquired by Russia immediately after Qing China’s defeat of Dzungaria when the Altai zaisans (clan chiefs), afraid of the Chinese troops, requested acceptance as subjects of the Russian emperor. For the Altais, submission to Russia was the best way out of a very difficult situation after the defeat of Dzungaria, when they were persecuted by Chinese and Mongol troops and faced with the threat of annihilation. After Speransky’s reforms of 1822 and the application of the ‘Statute on the Adminis- tration of the Inorodtsy’, the Altai region was administered by the police chief in Biisk and the ‘separate Altai assessor’ in Ulala (the modern Gorno-Altaisk). 31 The Altais remained subject to the powers of the zaisans, who controlled particular groups of clans rather than territory. Wherever the ordinary Altais nomadized they were subject only to their own zaisan , to whom they paid yasaq (tribute) and from whom they obtained legal judgments. In that sense the powers of the zaisans were virtually unlimited. In 1880, by decree of the tsar, the zaisans were banned from holding office for life. The zaisans had assistants called demich s whose number matched that of the clans under each zaisan. The lesser officials subordinate to the zaisans were called shulengs, arbanakhs and boshkos. In the first half of the nineteenth century the Russian administration received numerous complaints from the zaisans about unauthorized settlement and land seizures by Russians 30 The April 1941 appeal was issued by the Politburo of the Tuvan People’s Revolutionary Party the day after the Russian colonists were given Tuvan citizenship. After the 1944 (August) declaration issued in the name of the ‘Little Khural of Working People of the TPR’, a Tuvan delegation headed by Salchak Toka went to Moscow where they waited a month before presenting it. On 11 October the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet accepted Tuva into the USSR and requested its admission to the RSFSR as an autonomous oblast’ . It was upgraded to the status of an Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in October 1961. Since the 1990s it has styled itself the Republic of Tuva (or Tyva, reflecting the Tuvan Cyrillic spelling). [Trans.] 31 Called Oirat-Tuva from 1932 to 1948. [Trans.] 328 Contents
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in the northern part of the Gorny Altai. However, the inflow of settlers into the Altai region was not as massive as that into Khakassia and the Minusinsk basin. Organized colonization was carried out only by the Altai Spiritual Mission at that time. The expansion of its work and programme of action were drawn up by the outstanding missionary Archimandrite Makary, who created the methodology for the missionary cause in the Altai region. Makary proposed making baptised Altais settle down and learn to read and write to prepare them for the transition to a cultured way of life, and freeing them from taxes and duties for the initial period after baptism. The organization of instruction for newly bap- tized Altai women in housework, cleanliness and hygiene, medical treatment, midwifery, sewing, spinning and baking had an enormous impact. Makary organized free schools for boys and girls. He led conversion to Orthodoxy, prayers and services in the Altai language. The creation in the Altai region of settlements of newly baptized Altais is linked with the name of Makary and his followers. The missions were expanded and set up among the Teleuts, Shors and Kumandas. There was some resistance to the missions, however, espe- cially among the southern Altais who refused to be baptized. By the end of the nineteenth century the Altais had acquired Russian agricultural tools and techniques. Their diet became more varied, thanks to the development of vegetable- growing under Russian influence. Hunting and nut-gathering became auxiliary activities. The methods of tanning and felt-making remained traditional. As a rule, livestock produce was for the herders’ own use and not for the market. In the 1860s the whole Gorny Altai was embraced by the activities of the Russian traders and a trade fair was inaugurated in Kosh-Agach, near the border with China. In his letters from Siberia, V. V. Radlov 32 says
that the Altais were badly cheated by the traders. After the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, many mining enterprises began to hire workers and this reduced the income of the owners and the state. The decision to allow the settlement in the Altai region of peasants from Russia’s internal provinces came into force in 1865. However, the planned colonization of the Altai region to create Russian settlements in the border zone began only in 1873. As colonization progressed, the illegal seizure of land became more common. This led increasingly to landless settlers and poor Altais hiring out their agricultural labour to prosperous Russian early settlers of the Altai region. This was the subject of complaints by several zaisans who set off for the tsar’s 32 Vasily Vasilyevich Radlov (1837–1918), prominent orientalist, inspector of minority schools in Kazan 1872–83, president of the Russian Committee for the Study of Central and Eastern Asia from 1903, co- founder of the Buddhist temple in St Petersburg. He used the name Friedrich Wilhelm Radloff for works published in German. [Trans.] 329
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court in St Petersburg. 33 This resulted in an instruction of 1894 banning settlement and the allocation of free land in the Altai region. It was thanks to the activities of the Orthodox mission that the first Altais were edu- cated. Some of them were sent to Kazan 34 to complete their ecclesiastical education. Mean- while, the mission pursued philological studies to describe the Altai dialects and drew up a script. Political as well as religious tasks were dealt with. Wide use was made of the practical skills of the learned missionary N. I. Ilminsky in converting the inorodtsy in their own language with the help of teachers from the same tribe. For the training of these personnel a catechetical college was opened in Biisk; its activities ranged far beyond the Altai region. The first Altai writer, the priest M. Chevalkov, was a product of this college; he was awarded a gold medal by Tsar Alexander II (1855–81). Despite the efforts of the Orthodox mission, in 1904–5 a religiou-spolitical movement called ‘ Burkhanism’, or the ‘White Faith’, appeared in the southern livestock-herding areas of the Altai region. The preacher of the new faith, Chot Chelpanov, and his daughter Chugul, called on the Altais to give up shamanism, which was entrenched in their daily life, not to seek help from the shamans, and at the same time to avoid friendly contacts with Christians and not to share food with them or speak to them. They preached the early coming of the new tsar, Oirot-Yapon. 35 News of the new faith spread quickly and it became popular among the Altais. The Altais who gathered to hear the sermons were unaffected by the admonitions of Russian officials. Envoys of Chelpanov travelled the Altai settlements and used violence against those who opposed the new faith. Researchers into these events consider that they were organized by Mongol lamas and Japanese emissaries in connection with the Russo-Japanese war (1904–5). The authorities were concerned about the big gatherings of Altais attracted by the ser- mons and, to detain the false prophet and his supporters, they mobilized police and soldiers called in by the missions. Chelpanov, his daughter and several zaisans and bays (rich men) as well as a Mongol lama were arrested. The expert witness at their trial in Biisk was a 33 Called Petrograd from 1914 to 1924, then Leningrad until the 1990s, when it reverted to St Petersburg. [Trans.] 34 City on the River Volga, now capital of the Republic of Tatarstan, captured by Tsar Ivan the Terrible in 1552. Centre of the Orthodox mission to the Tatars and of Siberian studies at its university. The great Mon- golist Osip Mikhailovich Kovalevsky (Kowalewski) was exiled there for participation in the Polish freedom movement. [Trans.] 35 The name links Japan (or the Japanese) with the Oirats, the native inhabitants of the Gorny Altai related to the western Mongol Oirats. [Trans.] 330
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political exile, the well-known ethnographer D. A. Klements, 36 who had participated in Radlov’s Orkhon expedition. Thanks to the lawyers’ efforts, the political and nationalistic side of the case was not examined. Chelpanov returned to the Altai region and continued to preach in favour of its separation from Russia and annexation to Japan, which had ‘beaten the White Tsar and conquered all the towns as far as Irkutsk’. The support for Burkhanism and separatism by the zaisans and bays was a result of the success of the Christianization and Russification of the Altai population who, once baptized, ceased to pay taxes to the local nobility. Changes in land management and the administrative structure took place from 1911 to 1913. The zaisans were abolished and the general Russian territorial scheme of volost’s (districts) was introduced. At the end of 1916 the male population of the Altai was mobilized for service in the rear and at the front (in the First World War). However, mobilization gave rise to mass protests and opposition by the Altais and conscription did not take place. Messianic ideas spread again in the Altai region after the February 1917 revolution. 37 This time they figured the legendary hero Amyr-Sana, 38 who would win the Altai back from Russia. The overthrow of autocracy created a wave of the nationalist movement under the leadership of the Altai intelligentsia raised by the missionaries. In June 1917 a congress of delegates of the native authorities of the Altai region, Shoriya and Achinsk was held in Biisk. The leadership of the congress was in the hands of the Socialist Revolutionaries, 39 who proposed self-determination for the inorodtsy of the Altai, the formation of an inde- pendent elected district council (zemstvo) and the creation of an Altai mountain duma. After the October revolution, 40 the Altai intelligentsia were drawn into the political struggle developing in the towns of Siberia. Having failed to obtain approval from the district council in Biisk, Altai mountain duma prepared for its founding congress in Ulala in February 1918. The congress resolved to separate the Altai to form an independent district and emphasized its adherence to Orthodoxy. The ethnographer V. I. Anuchin delivered a report providing the historical justification for uniting the lands of the ‘legendary Oirot 36 Dmitry Aleksandrovich Klements (1847–1914), prominent ethnographer who studied in Kazan and St Petersburg, was a leader of the Narodniki and was exiled to Siberia in 1897. Head of the ethnographic department of the Alexander III Museum in St Petersburg from 1900. [Trans.] 37 Following strikes and bread shortages in St Petersburg, the autocratic state apparatus disintegrated and a Provisional Government was formed to keep Russia in the war against Germany. [Trans.] 38 Amarsanaa, an Oirat khan who fought for independence but was defeated by the Manchu army in 1757. [Trans.] 39 The SR, a peasant-oriented party, supported the Mensheviks against an attempted Bolshevik coup in Petrograd in July 1917. [Trans.] 40 On 25 October 1917 (modern calendar date, 7 November) Lenin’s Bolsheviks overthrew the Provisional Government led by Aleksandr Kerensky and proclaimed a Soviet government; civil war followed. [Trans.] 331
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Buriatia
state’ in a single republic. The people of the Russian and Mongol Altai, Khakassia, Tuva and Dzungaria were to join it. The congress resolved to set up the Oirot Republic at a special qurultay (tribal assembly) in Kosh-Agach near the border with Mongolia. A special commission headed by a kaghan 41 was appointed to discuss the establishment of the Oirat Republic. Anuchin was elected kaghan and the Karakorum 42 Altai board (uprava) became the body ruling the Altai region. After the establishment of the Provisional Government in Siberia, officers from Kolchak’s forces took charge of the board. Under the slogan ‘The Altai for the Altais!’, the formation began of a ‘native division’, a company of which even became Kolchak’s per- sonal guard. In December 1919 partisan detachments joined forces with Red Army units on the Chuya trakt. 43 Soviet power was established in the Altai region and three administrative districts (rayons) were formed: Ulala, Shebalino and Uimon. However, armed resistance by various detachments of the White Guards continued in the Altai region right up to 1922. On 1 June 1922 the Oirat autonomous oblast’ was formed as part of the RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic); it was renamed the Gorny Altai autonomous district on 7 January 1948; and transformed into the Altai Republic after 1991. 44 Buriatia As in the contiguous regions of southern Siberia after the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, and the mass peasant colonization that followed, there were changes in the mining and agricultural sectors in Buriatia. 45 Gold mining became the leading branch of industry in the 1880s. Settlement of the land proceeded unsatisfactorily because of the lack of plans for land management. When construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began in 1891, there was a sharp growth in the influx of population. In 1908 alone the number of settlers reached 750,000. By 1900 the builders of the Trans-Siberian Railway were approaching Lake Baikal from both west and east. Initially the trains crossed the lake on ferries, the tracks along the banks of Lake Baikal were completed only five years later. The operation and servicing of the railway required the speedy development of all sectors of industry. New skills appeared, the social structure of the region’s population changed and even the local aristocrats, the noyans (princes, nobles), began to engage in industrial enterprise. 41 The word kaghan is derived from the old Mongolian form of ‘khan’. [Trans.] 42 Karakorum being the ancient Mongol capital Kharkhorin. [Trans.] 43 The Chuya trakt was a caravan route following the course of the River Chuya up to Kosh-Agach and the Mongolian border. [Trans.] 44 The USSR was dissolved in December 1991. [Trans.] 45 The lands of the Buriats, Mongols living east and west of Lake Baikal in Siberia, the modern Buriat Republic. [Trans.] 332
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Wealthy Buriats became accomplished at trade and invested in industrial undertakings and banks. Besides Irkutsk, which became one of the richest towns of Siberia, the Transbaikal towns (on the eastern side of the lake) grew quickly. As the towns grew, agriculture developed too. By the end of the 1880s the area of land sown to crops by the Buriats in Irkutsk guberniya exceeded that of the Russians. The Transbaikal Buriats occupied the leading position in livestock-raising. Buriatia was the only region of southern Siberia noted for its high standards of livestock care and selec- tion of highly productive and fine-fleece animals. Horse-drawn agricultural equipment and machines were delivered by rail. All this ensured the growth of labour productivity on peasant farms and of income from the produce. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the number of secular schools and colleges for Buriat children began to exceed that of lama schools. As well as Buriat schools an Evenk 46
there were many monasteries and datsans (lamasery colleges). The Orthodox mission in Irkutsk was quite active and opened missionary and parish schools in many places. By 1903 they were teaching almost 1,500 Buriats. For this reason the formation of the national intelligentsia proceeded more quickly than in contiguous regions. Tsyben Jamtsarano, 47 a
ment of secular education in the datsans, for reform without intensifying the class struggle and for the unification of the nation on the basis of a single religion, reformed Buddhism. The reform movement among the lamas grew considerably in scale. Proclaiming the ideas of the Narodniki, 48 Jamtsarano set out the following basic tasks of the organization called the ‘Banner of the Buriat Nation’: establishment of national schools, enlightenment of the masses, and national self-determination and autonomy for the Buriats. Another tendency called the Zapadniki criticized Jamtsarano for proposing to replace shamanism with Buddhism and maintained that the datsans were incapable of replacing education in secular schools. Their main objection was to the creation of a sepa- rate Buriat zemstvo. 46 The Evenks are a Tungusic people called Khamnigan by the Mongols. [Trans.] 47 Jamtsarano (1880–1942) was assigned by the Russian Committee for the Study of Central and Eastern Asia to collect folk literature and study shamanism in Buriatia and taught Mongol at St Petersburg Uni- versity. Jamtsarano had attended the St Petersburg Buriat school set up by Petr Aleksandrovich (Jamsaran) Badmayev, specialist in Tibetan medicine and the tsar’s adviser on East Asia. Jamtsarano was a founder member of the Mongolian People’s Party who drew up its ‘Proclamation to the People of Outer Mongolia’ and the appended ‘Ten Principles’ (1921). He founded the Mongolian Institute of Scripture (forerunner of the Academy of Sciences) but was purged in the 1930s, sent to Leningrad and died in prison. [Trans.] 48 Populists, supporters of peasant land reform without class conflict, eventually absorbed by the Socialist Revolutionaries. [Trans.] 333
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As in contiguous regions of Siberia, the national movement of the Buriats was con- nected with the implementation of administrative and land reform. The conservative ten- dency was in favour of the old institutions of the noyan and the Steppe duma. The national (Buriat) bourgeoisie was in favour of cooperation with the Russian administration. The reformist ideas of the Narodniki, to improve the clan community 49 of the Buriats as the basis of a socialist society, were quite popular among the Buriats. The development of industry and railway communications influenced the emergence of an organized workers’ movement. Revolutionary political groups prepared public actions by the workers. As well as strikes there were armed insurrections. In 1866 the Polish exiles working on the railway rebelled. The rebellion was suppressed and its leaders were shot. Strikes in the gold mines were put down by force. The number of strikes grew considerably in the period from 1905 to 1907. The political exiles participated actively in these events, armed detachments of workers were formed and the management to all intents and purposes evaded its respon- sibilities. The first soviet of deputies of soldiers and Cossacks 50 was set up in Chita, and historians call the period from November 1905 to January 1906 the period of the ‘Chita Republic’. Revolutionary actions continued in south-eastern Siberia right up to the end of 1907 with the participation of Buriat students. The creation of united Social Democratic organizations followed the news of the Feb- ruary revolution (1917) and the overthrow of autocracy. An executive committee of public organizations was set up in the Transbaikal region. There was no irreconcilable armed con- frontation between the factions in the region, unlike most of revolutionary Russia. In Chita at the end of April 1917 Buriats from the Transbaikal area and Irkutsk guberniya held their first national congress, which elected a Buriat national duma. It was decided that Buriat autonomy would be based on the administrative structure sum–hoshuu–aimag. 51 The Social Democrats in Chita considered the October revolution in Petrograd to be illegal. They set up a committee to save the revolution and demanded the creation of a socialist government. Soviets were established in February 1918 with the participation of Cossacks who had arrived from the front. The uprising of the Czechoslovak corps on the Trans-Siberian Railway brought about the collapse of Soviet power, and Irkutsk, Verkhneudinsk and Chita were captured. The Transbaikal region was occupied by the army of Ataman Semenov 52 with the support of 49 The Buriats included in Irkutsk guberniya the Bulagat, Ekhirit and 10 other tribes and in Transbaikal oblast’ the Barguzin, Selenga, Khori and others comprising altogether over 100 clans. [Trans.] 50 Russians allowed to settle freely in southern Russia and Siberia in return for contracted service to protect the frontiers. [Trans.] 51 That is, district–banner–league (province). [Trans.] 52 Grigory Mikhailovich Semenov (1890–1946), self-proclaimed ataman (Cossack chief ). He set up a Buriat autonomous republic in Chita in 1919 and had plans to establish a pan-Mongolian state, but was not 334
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Buriatia
Japanese and American units. The Buriat national regiment named after Dordzhi Banzarov
53 was formed there. On the whole, however, the Buriats tried to preserve their neutrality in political and military confrontations. A powerful partisan movement which developed at the end of 1919 succeeded in defeating the forces of Semenov and Kolchak. However, Chita remained under occupa- tion by Japanese troops and this hindered communication between central Russia and the Far East. 54 This is why a founding congress held in Verkhneudinsk in April 1920 resolved to set up the Far Eastern Republic. Two Buriat-Mongol autonomous oblast’s were created, a western one within the RSFSR and an eastern one within the Far Eastern Republic. 55 The army of the Far Eastern Republic and partisan detachments took joint action to force the remnants of the White Guards into Manchuria and the Japanese command was obliged to sign an armistice. The final stage of events in the civil war was the declaration of the incorporation of the Far Eastern Republic into the RSFSR. As a result Buriatia, which had been divided by the establishment of the Far Eastern Republic, was reunited. On 30 May 1923 it was resolved to form the Buriat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic 56 with its cen- tre at Verkhneudinsk. 57 The name Republic of Buriatia was adopted in 1990. supported by Outer Mongolia or Japan. In 1920 he was forced by the Bolsheviks to retreat into Manchuria and fled to the US but was deported and lived in Dairen (Dalny, Dalian), a Chinese commercial port leased by Russia in 1897 with the naval base of Port Arthur (Lushun). He was captured by Soviet troops in August 1945, tried by military tribunal in Moscow and executed. [Trans.] 53 Dordzhi Banzarov (1822–55), Buriat philologist and ethnographer, graduate of Kazan gymnasium and Kazan University, St Petersburg scholar, was released from Cossack service by order of Tsar Nicholas I to work under the governor-general of eastern Siberia, Count Nikolai Nikolayevich Muravyev-Amursky, from 1851. [Trans.] 54 The Russian Far East, particularly the Maritime (Primorsky) region. [Trans.] 55 The Buriat aimags were Tunka, Selenga, Ekhirit-Bulagat, Bokhan and Alar (in the RSFSR) and Aga, Barguzin, Khori and Chikoi (in the FER). Administrative changes in the 1930s culminated in the separation of Aga and Ust-Ordynsky national okrugs and their subordination to Irkutsk and Chita oblast’s respectively in 1937. [Trans.] 56 The word ‘Mongol’ was dropped in July 1958. [Trans.] 57 Renamed Ulan-Ude in 1934. [Trans.] 335 Contents
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15 MONGOLIA
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