History of Civilizations of Central Asia
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Contents
IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
INDIA AND PAKISTAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771 735
Contents ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN Part One IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN * (W. Floor) Iran Painting
THE QAJAR ERA (1796–1925) During the first half of the Qajar period, the artistic scene was mainly dominated by the painters attached to the royal court under the chief royal painter (naqq¯ash-b¯ashi). The other painters, i.e. those who did not work for a patron, whether royal or not, but who worked for the market, followed their own artistic leanings. Persian painters mainly illustrated and illuminated manuscripts, in small-scale works, where detail and colour were more important than texture and shading; they also produced lacquer work, oils and frescoes. Qajar paintings were still traditional in that they focused on: narrative literary works – the depicted scenes included subjects such as romance, and epic themes (battles, roy- alty); sensual themes (flora and fauna), including the erotic; and religious subjects (imams, ‘ulam¯a’ ). However, the rendering of the subject matter showed an evolution not only in style, but also in the way that royalty and other traditional subjects were depicted. Finally, Qajar painters used a large variety of media such as walls, canvas, wood, glass, enamel, books, newspapers, pen-boxes (qalamd¯ans), water pipes, screens, tiles and so on. After about 1850 Qajar painters split into two stylistic groups, one continuing to work in traditional ways, the other adopting a European style. This development was gradual and was inspired by the European trips made by several painters. The first such trip was by Kazem, the son of ‘Abbas Mirza’s chief painter. He left in 1811 for Britain, where he died two years later. Mohammad Shah (1834–48) sent two painters to Europe: Mirza Reza was * See Map
6 . 736 Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN sent to Paris and Abu’l-Hasan Ghaffari Sani‘ al-Molk to Rome around 1847. Under Naser al-Din Shah (1848–96), the most important painters sent to Paris were Mirza ‘Ali Akbar Khan Mozayyen al-Dowle Natanzi (on his return he became a teacher of painting at the D¯ar
, or Polytechnic) and Mirza ‘Abd al-Motallab. The purpose of the state-financed European education of talented painters was for them to acquire the basic principles of the European painting style, with its naturalistic representation of objects and individuals. Fur- thermore, the aim was to create an indigenous group of Iranian painters who had mastered European art and techniques and could teach them to students who could not afford to go abroad to study. On the orders of Naser al-Din Shah, Sani‘ al-Molk, on his return from Europe, founded a school called the Maktab-e Naqq¯ashi-ye Majj¯ani (School of Free Painting) in 1861: here, pupils were taught in formal classes rather than according to the traditional apprentice sys- tem of on-the-job training. Sani‘ al-Molk also started an atelier and a public art exhibition. The school was later absorbed by the D¯ar al-Fon¯un, where painting and drawing were for- mal subjects for the students. As a result, Iranian artists began depicting the real world and day-to-day life rather than traditional subjects such as hunting and battle scenes, dancing girls, birds and flowers. The result was a series of naturalistic landscapes, urban scenes, portraits of princes and courtiers, and everyday people. Thus a style of painting emerged that combined Eastern and Western influences. It is true that in early Qajar times even before 1850, several painters (especially on qalamd¯an s) had followed European models, but the style was still traditionally Persian. The subsequent formal training of painters in European techniques in Persia itself, the growing popularity of photograph-like illustrations in the printed media and the spread of photography all led to a new style of painting. E‘temad al-Saltaneh, for example, observed: As of the time of the invention of photography, portrait painting, likeness painting (shab¯ıh- keshi ), landscape painting (d¯urnam¯a-sazi) as well as paying attention to light and shade and the application of perspective (q¯an¯un-e tanassob) was being applied. 1 Sani‘ al-Molk’s work nevertheless reveals the influence of miniature painting and Iran’s artistic heritage, although he was well versed in European painting techniques. His contem- porary, Mahmud Khan Saba, poet laureate and court painter, on the other hand, was one of the artists who struck an artistic balance between contemporary European trends and the heritage of Persian painting. His water-colours are a photographic-like series of depic- tions of royal palaces, gardens and rooftop views of Tehran and its people in the Qajar era. Portrait painting, which became quite popular, relied on photographs mainly to reduce the sitting time for the patron: 1 E‘temad al-Saltaneh, 1306/1884 , pp. 125–6. 737 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN Naser al-Din Shah paints himself and keeps a naqq¯ash-b¯ashi in his service who often paints his portrait. He does not spend too much time sitting for his portrait; when the moustache has been finished he is done, and leaves it to the artist to complete the face. The bust which he likes is copied from Nicholas I. 2 The shah’s face was probably completed using a recent photograph. The photograph- like stance of the painted figures in the second half of the nineteenth century is striking when one compares portrait paintings with portrait photographs. 3 Photography, which had been described in 1844 as a kind of painting combined with techniques learned in and borrowed from Europe (perspective, shades of light, especially chiaroscuro, colouring), led to a style that has been dubbed the photographic style. Some of the painters of that style were also photographers. (See more on photography below.) The introduction and popularity of book printing, which became widespread at the same time as the introduction of photography in Iran, dealt a further blow to painters and related craftsmen who worked in the traditional style: it was much cheaper to print a book (even lithographs) than to have it copied, illuminated and decorated with miniatures. This victorious march of the printing press is clear from the decreasing number of manu- scripts produced; it completed the process (started in the eighteenth century) of the gradual disappearance of manuscripts with good miniatures, of which very few were made in Qajar Persia, even before the growing popularity of lithography. Although miniature painting continued it was at a lower level, sometimes restricted to qalamd¯ans and reproductions of seventeenth-century-style manuscripts. Traditional folk painting such as found on the walls of coffee-houses or religious sanctuaries and other buildings also continued. Travel- ling dervishes might also have paintings showing the epic glories of the martyrdom of the Shi‘ite imams and heroic scenes from Iran’s epic past. Technically speaking, these pictures are simple. The colour schemes and compositions derive from the domain of miniature painting and follow the figural conventions of Qajar art. New fields of artistic expression were lithography, printed books and (from the beginning of the twentieth century) carica- tures (see below). The artist who would come to dominate Iranian painting and sculpture was Mohammad Ghaffari Naqq¯ash-b¯ashi (Kamal al-Molk), a nephew of Sani‘ al-Molk. He had received his training at home and the D¯ar al-Fon¯un, and from 1898 to 1901 he studied in Europe, where he copied old masters and was exposed to the European artistic community. Although Iranian realist painting had begun before the time of Kamal al-Molk, it was he who came to epitomize this style and who set the tone for the next 40 years. Because the D¯ar al-Fon¯un 2 Polak, 1865 , Vol. 1, p. 291. 3 For the latter see Afshar, 1371/1992; Adle and Zoka, 1983 , pp. 249–80, provide evidence that pho- tographs were used for portrait paintings. 738
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN was not a real art academy, for students also had to take non-art related subjects, in 1912, at the suggestion of Kamal al-Molk, a Madreseh-ye San¯aye‘-e Mostazrefeh va Madreseh-ye Naqq¯ashi (School of Fine Arts and Painting) was founded, with Kamal al-Molk as director. Pupils at the Kamal al-Molk school – and other painters who held similar ideas – made a large number of landscapes, portraits, still lives and copies of European works. The school’s goal was to find new talented students and educate them in the best possi- ble way. Kamal al-Molk did not confine the curriculum to painting. He introduced other arts and crafts such as sculpture, carpet weaving, mosaic design and woodwork to his school in order to revive the dying fine arts. In a relatively short time, Kamal al-Molk trained a number of competent students who would later become famous artists. Their achievements attracted much attention, both in Iran and Europe. 4 Esma‘il Ashtiyani (1893–1971) was a pupil and friend of Kamal al-Molk and painted in his style. After Kamal al-Molk, he was the most important representative of the Iranian photographic-style school. THE FIRST PHASE OF MODERN ART(EARLY 1920S TO 1940S/1950S) Despite the improved communications with Europe, there was little communication between the two art worlds. When the photographic style came into vogue in Iran, impres- sionism was already starting to be replaced by other forms of modern art. When Kamal al-Molk’s school started to train its students and they in turn passed on their know-how to the next generation, cubism and other related trends were already passé in Europe. Kamal al-Molk’s school dominated the Iranian art scene until the end of the Second World War, although its influence is still felt today. Although Kamal al-Molk painted his last work in 1928, his principal students continued in the realistic style and were among the leaders of the traditional school until the end of the 1960s. The realist school of painting may be characterized by its craftsmanship, as is clear from the draughtsmanship, use of perspec- tive, clear contours and natural proportions. The school also influenced the coffee-house school of painting, which produced scenes illustrating Iran’s mythical past and its religious heritage, in particular the martyrdom of the Imams. THE SECOND PHASE OF MODERN ART(1940S/1950S TO 1970S) The birth of the second phase of modern art in Iran goes back to the start of the 1940s, when the foundation of the first Institute of Art in Tehran marked the beginning of a serious and systematic approach to the new discoveries of Western art. The institute was part of Tehran 4 Among them were Hoseyn ‘Ali Khan Vaziri, Esma‘il Ashtiyani, ‘Ali Mohammad Heydariyan, Mahmud Oliya‘, Ne‘matollah Moshiri, ‘Ali Akbar Yasami and Mohsen Soheyli. 739
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN FIG. 1. Hoseyn Kazemi: Composition, 1976 (mixed media on canvas, 116 × 80 cm). (Photo: © Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art.) University, founded in 1934 to serve, among other things, as a centre for the propagation of modern arts and sciences and as a link to world civilization. In 1940 Esma‘il Mer’at, the Iranian minister of education, who had spent some years in Paris, ordered the French architect André Godard – then the director of the Iranian Archaeology Services – to set up an art school modelled after the Ecole Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris, which became the cradle of modern art and painting in Iran. The next 20 years was a period during which young artists ‘tested out’ the various modern and changing expressions of Western art in search of new methods and their own style and character. Consequently, much of their out- put reflects that exploration and bears the imprint of the different Western artistic styles. In fact, Hoseyn Kazemi, one of the pioneers of modern art in Iran, was exposed to impres- sionism as a modern art form at the Faculty of Modern Arts ( Fig. 1 ). The modernists had to fight on two fronts: against the influence of the miniaturists and followers of Kamal al-Molk, and against the prejudices of the general public, which had yet to be won over. By that time the change in Iran had already started and the clash with the photographic school was a fact. Young artists such as Hushang Pezeshkniya (1917–72), Sohrab Sepehri (1928–80), Hoseyn Kazemi (1924–93) and Mahmud Javadipur (b. 1920), to mention some of the most important names, introduced new ways of communicating in painting ( Fig. 2 ).
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN FIG. 2. Hushang Pezeshkniya: Flute Player, 1968 (watercolour on paper, 70 × 50 cm). (Photo: © Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art.) At that time, modern artists formed a small group of avant-garde thinkers and doers that included not only painters, but also poets and prose writers. The ‘dehumanization’ of their subjects gave rise to strong opposition. The modernists argued that their paintings reflected reality as it is. The lack of venues to exhibit and publicly discuss their new art was sorely felt. The first exhibitions of modern painting in Iran took place in 1945 and 1946 and were staged in cultural institutions attached to foreign embassies, since modern artists were not yet recognized as such by the Iranian Government. The first exhibition ever held was at the Soviet embassy’s Voks House, with paintings by Mashayekhi, Ameri, Javadipur and some better-known Persian painters. Mashayekhi and Javadipur later opened a gallery, which lasted for a mere six months and ended with unpaid bills for the rent. 5 In 1948 a number of university-educated painters – among them Mahmud Javadipur ( Fig. 3
), Jalil Ziyapur ( Fig. 4
) and Javad Hamidi – launched a modernart movement called the Fighting Cock Society (Khor¯us-e Jangi), which published the art and literature mag- azine Rooster’s Claw (Panjeh-ye Khor¯us), edited by Bahman Mohasses. This opened up better opportunities for artists to show and discuss their work. Some of the painters were also modernist poets in their own right. Hoseyn Kazemi, for example, who painted the 5 Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 1974, p. 483. 741 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN FIG. 3. Mahmud Javadipur: A Woman, 1948 (oil on canvas, 56 × 73.5 cm). (Photo: © Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art.) well-known portrait of Sadeq Hedayat (Iran’s most famous twentieth-century author) and also worked as an illustrator, published several collections of poems during his lifetime. He also worked as a potter and founded the art and literature magazine Sarv (Cypress) in Tabriz in 1961. Together with Mahmud Javadipur and Hushang Ajudani, Hoseyn Kazemi founded the Apadana Art Gallery in October 1949, which became an artists’ centre. The first exhibition at the Apadana in 1949 aroused strong emotions and upset the traditional- ists; there was even an attack on the paintings. The early 1950s were characterized by quasi-cubist and prismatic depictions, while the late 1950s and early 1960s saw a move towards avant-garde experimentation such as free-form abstracts and a dynamic interpretation of impressionism, cubism, expres- sionism, surrealism, abstractionism, pop art and conceptual art, while at the same time not entirely abandoning the traditional heritage. Hushang Pezeshkniya and Ziyapur are believed to have introduced cubism into Iran. The former was a very good portraitist and an excellent draughtsman. The painter and poet Sohrab Sepehri had a ‘tree-trunk’ period and experimented with several styles including abstract ( Fig. 5 ). In the main, however, Iranian modern art remained more figurative, more occupied with pattern, more interested in bril- liant colouring than contemporary Western painting. 742 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN FIG. 4. Jalil Ziyapur: Hope, 1989 (oil on canvas, 100 × 135 cm). (Photo: © Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art.) FIG. 5. Sohrab Sepehri: Stones, 1977 (oil on canvas, 200 × 200 cm). (Photo: © Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art.) Marcos Grigorian, who had studied art in Rome, had on his return to Tehran in 1954, where he also taught at the School of Fine Arts (Honarest¯an-e Honarh¯a-ye Zib¯a), opened a commercial art gallery, the Gallerie Esthétique (1954–9). He organized the first Tehran 743
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN FIG. 6. Marcos Grigorian: untitled (pisé on canvas, 165 × 200 cm). (Photo: © Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art.) Biennale (1958) in collaboration with the Department of Fine Arts ( Fig. 6 ). Until that time, the government had not shown much interest in modern art. In 1950 a Fine Arts Department had been created to encourage artists in various fields (painting, theatre, film). The department was part of the Ministry of Education until 1961, when it was transferred to the prime minister’s office. In 1964 the Ministry of Art and Culture was created and it took over all the functions of the Fine Arts Department. From that time, the government continued to support modern art and played a crucial role in the organization of subse- quent Biennales. The Tehran Bienniale awarded cash prizes and medals. The jury consisted mainly of foreign art specialists. At that time, the government also held exhibitions of the work of students from the art schools (honarest¯ans). The one for girls was founded in 1954. The fight between modernists and traditionalists that had begun in the 1940s continued throughout the 1950s and 1960s ( Fig. 7
). 6 It was perhaps partly also a financial problem 6 Among the traditionalists were Abu’l-Hasan Sadeqi, Hasan-Ali Vaziri, Esma‘il Ashtiyani, Rassam Arjangi, Mehdi Vishka’i, Mostafa Najmi, Samimi, Ms Shaghaghi, etc. The most outspoken modernists were Mohsen Vaziri Moqaddam, Hoseyn Zendehrudi, Hoseyn Kazemi, Jalil Khayyampur, Marcos Grigorian, Ms Shokuh Riyazi, Sohrab Sepehri, Abu’l-Qasem Sa‘idi, Bijan Saffari, Sirak Melconian, Jazeh Tabataba’i, Naser Oveysi and Parviz Tanavoli. 744 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN FIG. 7. Mohsen Vaziri-Moghaddam: untitled, 1966 (oil on canvas, 82 × 131 cm). (Photo: © Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art.) because the traditionalists complained that the Fine Arts Administration favoured the mod- ernists. The traditionalists considered modernism a deviation from ‘real art’. The famous miniaturist Hoseyn Behzad stated: The modern and cubist painters of Iran have, due to lack of skill, taken to the painting of abstract objects and the drawing of meaningless lines on paper. Another reason may be that they are not capable of producing worthwhile works. Fortunately, the people of Iran are not deceived by the unusual and strange nature of their work, as is clear from the fact that these painters have not been able to sell any paintings so far in Iran. Art speaks for itself. Art which does not convey the feelings of the artists and the meaning implied in it, is not art. The painting called the Gate of Auschwitz is nothing but a fruitless effort by the painter, who does not even bring to memory the macabre, infamous and abominable murders which took place in that concentration camp . . . 7 Another weekly journal, Sepid va Siy¯ah, wrote about the Third Biennale (1962) that it was a step backwards compared with the first two: Some painters, by drawing crooked lines and producing bad imitations of Iranian miniatures, tried to give a national colour to their work. Likewise, in order to give an Iranian touch, one of the sculptors has joined together a ewer, a bowl and a basin and has named it Shirin, the Beautiful Woman of Iran . 8 It is surprising that interesting works by artists like Mansur Qandriz, Cyrus Malek, Morteza Momayez and Behruz Golzari were not selected for the Venice Biennale. 9 7 Rowshanfekr , 23 Aug. 1962. 8 Referring to the 36-m-high painting by Marcos Grigorian exhibited in 1962. 9 Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 1963, p. 490. 745 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN At the Fourth Bienniale (1964), 225 painters and sculptors submitted 500 works, of which 125 were selected for exhibition. Most were modern and abstract. Of the six judges, Download 8.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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