History of Civilizations of Central Asia
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popular disturbances and national liberation movements against colonialism (1892, 1898, 1905–7, 1916). The growth of opposition to the tsarist regime was ‘extinguished’ in accordance with Russia’s great-power hegemonistic aims by measures ranging from considerably expand- ing the policing and repressive powers of the whole government apparatus to emergency and military measures which became permanent, with their special military field courts, cruel punitive expeditions and exile and imprisonment. The forcible reform of the traditional pillars of Central Asian society in the sphere of administration, the courts, the economic forms of development and the establishment of new social relations objectively influenced its cultural and spiritual life as well. However, the reform process in this sphere was the most difficult and complicated. The Russian authorities began active work to introduce Russian standards in education for the formation of a nucleus of people capable of ensuring the region’s movement down the road of further transformation. The administration’s interference in the centuries-old 45 Central State Archives (TsGA) of the Republic of Uzbekistan, coll. I–3, inv. 2, file 60, fol. 219. 143 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Relations with Islam education system produced an ambiguous reaction at all levels of society, from passionately hostile among the Muslim clergy and critical among the national intelligentsia to relatively loyal among the social ‘upper crust’, strongly tied by its economic interests to Russian bourgeois structures. The fact is that the traditional maktabs (primary schools) and madrasas played an important role in the region’s social life and were the source of the population’s literacy and education and much of its spiritual values. Their overall number, according to data from various sources, was as follows: in the three indigenous oblast’s of Turkistan 4,632 maktabs were active, providing elementary education, and 277 madrasas providing secondary and higher education. The greatest numbers of maktabs, 5,000, and of madrasas, 117, were concentrated in the emirate of Bukhara; there were 1,140 maktabs and 621 madrasas in the khanate of Khiva. In 1908 the number of students in these educational establishments totalled 94,973 in maktabs and 22,625 in madrasas. 46 The most influential madrasas in the religious education system were in Bukhara, Samarkand, Kokand, Tashkent and Khiva, which also trained scholars for neighbouring countries. As well as the study of Islam they also taught philosophy, astronomy, history, linguistics, logic, mathematics and medicine. Many Central Asian cultural figures were products of this environment – the Jadid 47 leader Mahmud Khoja Behbudi (1874–1919), Munawwar Qari (1880–1933), ‘Abdurrauf Fitrat (1884–1937), Tavallo, Sadriddin Aini (1878–1954), ‘Abdallah Avlani (1878–1934), Furkat, Ahmad Donish (1827–97), Sattarkhan ‘Abdulgafarov, Berdakh, Abay Kunanbaev (1845–1904), etc. On the basis of experience in other minority nationality regions of the empire, it was initially decided to set up so-called Russian-native schools with the promise that the ‘reli- gious convictions of the inorodtsy [lit. ‘people of different birth’, i.e. indigenous people] should not be encroached upon by schools, which should in no way have a confessional tendency’. 48 In the 1860s and 1870s they were unsuccessful. A ‘Plan of Arrangements for Schools and Popular Education in Turkistan Region’ was adopted in 1875. The Directorate of Educational Establishments in Turkistan Region was opened in the following year, to establish control over all maktabs and madrasas. The Turkistan Teachers’ Seminary went into operation in 1879 to train teachers for the 46 Geier,
1908 , p. 339; Central State Archives (TsGA) of the Republic of Uzbekistan, coll. I–1, inv. 11, file 1724, fol. 69; they included in 1908 in Syr Darya oblast’, 1,809 maktabs and 49 madrasas, in Samarkand
’ 1,680 maktabs and 69 madrasas, and in Ferghana oblast’, 1,143 maktabs and 159 madrasas. 47 The Jadid or ‘innovation’ movement, which set out to modernize Islam, first emerged in Russia among the Crimean Tatars and Muslims from the Caucasus, the Volga valley and the Urals. Ismail Gasprinsky (Gaspirali, 1851–1914), the founder of the first Jadid school in the Crimea and of the first Muslim newspaper Terc Üm¯an [The Interpreter], has been called the ‘father of Jadidism and Pan-Turkism’. [Trans.] 48 Central State Archives (TsGA) of the Republic of Uzbekistan, coll. I–47, inv. 1, file 382, fol. 14. 144 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Scientific interest in Central Asia Russian-native schools, colleges, progymnasiums and gymnasiums and secondary tech- nical and commercial colleges which appeared in quite considerable numbers in all the region’s major towns. The colonial authorities planned that the Teachers’ Seminary: should give a lead to all popular education and be . . . one of the most powerful tools for resolving the difficult question of the inorodtsy and for merging the newly conquered region with the empire spiritually. 49 Graduates of the Kazan Religious Academy, including N. P. Ostroumov, headed the seminary; S. Gremenitsky, F. A. Kerensky and V. P. Nalivkin all served at various times as chief inspectors of educational establishments. Around 100 Russian-native schools and colleges had been set up by 1909 but were teaching fewer than 3,000 pupils – though the number of students had doubled by 1917. 50 The vast majority were Russian. At the beginning of the twentieth century the Russian- native schools virtually gave up teaching the children of the indigenous population the bases of Muslim belief and the Arabic script, while history and geography were taught from Russian material. The Muslim population was little affected by education in the gymnasiums. Of the 463 pupils studying at Tashkent gymnasium in January 1917 only 4 were Muslim, and of the 287 pupils at Andijan girls’ gymnasium only 3. 51 According to data for 1917, only 10 Muslim girls were studying at the girls’ gymnasiums. From the very beginning, tsarism’s education policy came up against the objective opposition of the national psychology and the historically formed social lifestyle of the indigenous people of Central Asia, especially in the towns and agricultural areas of Turkistan region. Scientific interest in Central Asia One consequence of the contacts between the traditional and Russian structures was an enhanced interest in the study of Central Asia. This subject occupied a considerable part of the work of scientists at St Petersburg, Moscow and other Russian universities. The more progressively inclined elements of the Russian intelligentsia were fascinated by the opportunities to study this huge area, so rich in natural resources and historical inher- itance. Successful research was carried out by the well-known zoologist and traveller Nikolai Alekseevich Severtsov (1827–86), who built up valuable zoological, botanical, mineralogical and palaeontological collections. The famous Russian geographer Petr 49 Central State Archives (TsGA) of the Republic of Uzbekistan, coll. I–47, inv. 1, file 590, fol. 2. 50 Bendrikov, 1960 , p. 211. 51 Central State Archives (TsGA) of the Republic of Uzbekistan, coll. I–47, inv. 1, file 1521, fol. 11. 145 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Scientific interest in Central Asia Petrovich Semenov-Tyan-Shanskiy (1827–1914) laid firm foundations of geographical knowl- edge about Central Asia, particularly the Tian Shan mountain system. Great work in study- ing the Ferghana valley was undertaken by the naturalist Aleksey Pavlovich Fedchenko (1844–73). He explored the Za-Alai mountain chain and studied the Zerafshan valley and the Kyzyl Kum desert. The geologist and geographer I. V. Mushketov (1850–1902) made considerable contri- butions to science. He described many mineral deposits and compiled the first list of miner- als of Central Asia as well as creating the first scientific concept of its geological structure and the sequence of its formation. Historical and archaeological studies and excavations are linked with the names of V. V. Bartol’d, P. I. Lerkh, N. I. Veselovsky, V. A. Zhukovsky, and local researchers. In view of the lack of scientific research institutions in the region, rep- resentatives of the Russian intelligentsia set up several scientific societies – the Turkistan branch of the Society of Amateur Natural Scientists, Anthropologists and Ethnographers, the Turkistan Circle of Amateur Archaeologists, the Turkistan branch of the Russian Geo- graphical Society, the Turkistan Agricultural Society, the Turkistan Medical Society, etc. The activities of Russian scientists were appreciated and supported by the local intel- lectuals. Especially well known among them were Mirza Bukhari, who built up a large archaeological and numismatic collection, part of which was added to the State Hermitage collection; the fine artist and calligrapher Mirza Barat Mully Kasymov, who sketched many of Samarkand’s ancient monuments and the Ulugh Beg madrasa; Akram Palvan Askarov, who assembled an enormous collection of antiquities and was awarded the medal of the Imperial Archaeological Society for his services to archaeology; and the Samarkand cal- ligrapher and antique collector Abu Sa‘id Mahzum, who actively participated with V. L. Vyatkin’s expedition in the search for the ruins of Ulugh Beg’s observatory. 52 The works of Russian scientists and students of local lore drew the world’s attention for the first time to the culture and life of the peoples of Central Asia. Another consequence of contacts between the traditional and Russian cultures on an equal basis was the development of politicized national consciousness. The intellectual and spiritual life of local society came under the influence of events taking place in neigh- bouring countries of the East – the adoption of the law on local self-government in India (1880) and the opening of colleges and universities in Calcutta, Madras, Bombay and other towns; the proclamation of the rights and freedoms of citizens in the constitution of Turkey (1876) and the Turkish revolution of 1908; the constitutional movement in Iran (1905–11); and the revolution of 1905–7 in Russia. 52
. . . ,
1956 , Vol. 1; 1958, Vol. 2; Lunin, 1962 ; and others. 146 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Jadidism
Of course, the closest ties were established with the Muslim areas of Russia, from which newspapers and journals were received – Tercüm¯an [The Interpreter] from Bakhchis- arai ( Crimea), Vaqt [Time] from Kazan, Idil [Volga] from Astrakhan, Taraqi [Progress] and Ittif¯ag [Unity] from Baku, the journals Shur¯a and Chukuch from Orenburg, Mullah Nasreddin from Tiflis (modern Tbilisi, Georgia), etc. Besides providing general informa- tion about politics, economics and culture and the Muslim world, these publications ques- tioned the colonization of Eastern countries and demanded the modernization of education, the raising of the status of native languages and the preservation and encouragement of spiritual values. Jadidism All this gave a powerful stimulus to the birth and development of Jadidism in Turkistan, which played an important role not only in the reform of national education but also in the intensification of the national liberation movement at the beginning of the twentieth century (see Chapter 7 below). The most distinguished Jadids were the writer and educator Mahmud Khoja Behbudi, the teacher Munawwar Qari, the journalist and lawyer ‘Ubaydullah Khojaev, the scientist and writer ‘Abdurrauf Fitrat, the poet and current affairs commentator Tavallo and others. 53 Understanding that the way to national rebirth lay through the education of the people and the raising of an educated generation, from the end of the nineteenth century the Jadids created a quite broad network of new-method schools, or us¯ul-i jadid, where children were taught to read on the basis of phonetics and, besides religious sciences, the programme of education included arithmetic, geometry, logic, history and geography as well as Arabic, Persian and Russian. As the movement for the modernization of education developed, the publication was arranged of new textbooks and teaching aids and libraries and reading rooms were opened. Under the direct leadership of the Jadids dozens of newspapers and journals began to appear: Taraqi, Shukhrat, Khurshid and Sado-i Turkist¯an [Voice of Turkistan] in Tashkent,
and Oina [The Mirror] in Samarkand, T¯ur¯an [Turki Nation] and Bukh¯ar¯a-i Sharif in Bukhara, Sado-i Fargh¯ana [Voice of Ferghana] in Kokand, etc. On the Jadids’ initiative the first socio-political organizations were set up – Tarbiyat-i
(Education of Children), Umid (Hope), Nashri-maorif, Barakat, Gairat and Tarakki- parvar , which helped stimulate political life in the region, especially during the First World War, and the mobilization of the local indigenous population for military work in the rear 53 Alimova, 1996 , pp. 6–20. 147 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 Jadidism
services. 54 These organizations, despite their lack of experience, strove to raise the oppo- sition movement to a level corresponding to the urgent historical realities of national inter- ests.
Thus in Central Asia colonial developments collided with innovative trends of an intel- lectual and moral nature which had been initiated by the Jadids. Doubt was cast on them not only by the traditional norms of education but also by the q¯az¯ıs’ false interpretation of shar¯ı ‘a norms in their own interests and their unlawful involvement in dealing with matters of daily life, and important questions were raised about the cultural heritage of the peoples of Central Asia and their identity. Thus a new generation of the intelligentsia, capable of opposing the traditional inertia, accepting new ideas and the intellectual novel- ties of Eastern and Western civilizations, strove to change the existing material and social world, and to mobilize and use the people’s spiritual resources to achieve freedom and national rebirth. 54 Abdullaev, 1998 , p. 27; Abdullaev, 1992 , pp. 106–13. 148 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 ESTABLISHMENT OF SOVIET POWER 6 ESTABLISHMENT OF SOVIET POWER IN CENTRAL ASIA ( 1917 – 24) *
As a consequence of 50 years of the colonialist policies of tsarist Russia in western Central Asia,
1 the region had been transformed into both a source of raw materials for metropolitan Russia and a ready market for Russian industrial production. Although Russian capital was actively directed to the region, and with it came new technologies, market mechanisms and an entrepreneurial spirit, thus laying the foundations for a capitalist regime, none of this helped the productive forces of the region to flourish or contributed to the welfare of its inhabitants. The end of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth century con- stituted a spiritual turning-point in the social life of the peoples of the region. A new, modernizing social force, Jadidism (see Chapter 7 below), emerged, which, in the face of the achievements of global civilization, was capable of apprehending the full scope of the threat to the future of the Central Asian peoples posed by the blinkered conservatism of the outmoded pillars of traditional society, aggravated by half a century of the colo- nial policy of tsarist Russia. The modernizing forces of the Jadids, under the influence of ideas and ideological outlooks which were penetrating the region both from neighbouring eastern countries ( Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, India) and from other Muslim regions of Russia, played a major role in shaping the ideology of social renovation and reform and encouraging the rebirth of the spiritual potential of the peoples of the region. * See Map
2 . 1 By the beginning of the twentieth century, the whole of western Central Asia had come within the Russian sphere of geopolitical influence: the governor-generalships of Turkistan, Orenburg and Western Siberia ( Kazakhstan and Steppe region) had been directly incorporated into the Russian empire, and were putting significant pressure on the khanate of Khiva and the emirate of Bukhara, which were nominally independent under Russian protectorate. 149
Contents ISBN 92-3-103985-7 ESTABLISHMENT OF SOVIET POWER The February 1917 revolution in Russia and its first legislative acts proclaimed to the world that the country was breaking with the centuries-old tradition of autocracy and was embarking upon a new path. The spring of 1917 was a turning-point in the history of Cen- tral Asian Jadidism, which boldly entered the political arena of the region and declared its determination to lead the democratic process. Seeing the victorious February revolu- tion in Russia as the embodiment of their ideals of progress, the Jadids actively set about putting its declared principles into practice. The desire to defend and give priority to the political interests of the indigenous peoples determined the overall thrust of their action. A decisive role in the dissemination of Jadid ideology and policies, and the shaping on that basis of public opinion and the national awareness of the inhabitants of Turkistan, was played by Jadid newspapers and journals: Naj¯at, Kengash, Sh¯ur¯a-yi Isl¯am, T¯ur¯an, Turk eli [The People of Turkistan] and Ul¯ugh Turkist¯an [Great Turkistan] in Tashkent; Hurriyat in Samarkand; Tirik Soz and the journal Hurriyat in Kokand, etc. With a view to ensuring the representation of the indigenous population in the local gov- ernmental structures taking shape, national intellectuals made significant efforts to unite all the social forces of the Muslim population. A focal point for such unity was the Sh¯ur¯a-yi Isl¯amiya ( Islamic Council), founded in March 1917 in Tashkent. While its membership and leadership included individuals with a range of ideological outlooks, the heart and soul of the organization was made up of well-known leaders of the Jadid movement: ‘Ubaydallah Khojayev, Munawwar Qari, ‘Abdallah Avlani, Behbudi, etc. 2 Their influence was keenly felt in the activities and manifestos of the organization. In April 1917, on the initiative of the Jadids, local branches of the Shura-yi Islamiya were founded in Osh, Andijan, Skobelev, Turkestan, Merv, Namangan, Samarkand, Kokand and other towns of Turkistan. This process helped to enhance the role of the indigenous population, together with the European population, in dismantling the old governmental structures and in overcoming the opposition of their defenders, etc. Thus by early April 1917, the governor-generalship of Turkistan had been abolished, and the apparatus of gov- ernment was undergoing a thoroughgoing reorganization. The establishment of the Sh¯ur¯a-yi Isl¯amiya provided a strong corrective to the balance of political forces and the reorganization of the structures of government in the region. The development of this institution put a halt to the perceptible tendency to develop a two- pronged political structure in Turkistan, as at the centre. Instead, there was a three-pronged political structure, with soviets (councils) of workers’ and soldiers’ deputies, executive committees of social organizations, such as the local organs of the Provisional Govern- ment, and the Sh¯ur¯a-yi Isl¯amiya. The platforms and tactical positions adopted by all three 2
, 9 April 1917; Ul¯ugh Turkist¯an, 25 April 1917. 150
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 ESTABLISHMENT OF SOVIET POWER political forces were most clearly articulated by their regional congresses held in April 1917.
The First Pan-Turkistan Congress of Muslims (16–21 April), convened in Tashkent by the Sh¯ur¯a-yi Isl¯amiya, was attended by 150 delegates representing the indigenous peoples of the region. Having recognized the Provisional Government of Russia and its programme, the congress unanimously supported the idea of the establishment in Russia of a federal democratic republic which would grant a large measure of autonomy to all regions, includ- ing that of Turkistan. The final meeting of the congress adopted a resolution for the forma- tion of a central governing body, the Turkistan Regional Muslim Council (Kraymussovet). According to the statutes adopted on 12 June 1917, the Turkistan Regional Muslim Coun- Download 8.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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