Ideas of a man,time and space in modernism

Main article: Modernism in literature
In literature, modernism replaced the classical novel. Instead of a life story, the reader began to be offered literary interpretations of various philosophical, psychological and historical concepts (not to be confused with the psychological, historical and philosophical novel, which are classics), a style called the Stream of Consciousness ( eng . Stream of consciousness ), characterized by a deep penetration into the inner world of the characters. An important place in the literature of modernism is occupied by the theme of understanding the war, the lost generation .
The main forerunners of modernism were: Dostoevsky (1821-81) ( Crime and Punishment (1866), Brothers Karamazov (1880)); Whitman (1819-92) ( Leaves of Grass ) (1855-91); Baudelaire (1821-67) ( Flowers of Evil ), A. Rimbaud (1854-91) ( Insights , 1874); Strindberg (1849-1912), especially his later plays.
Philosophers who influenced modernist writers were Friedrich Nietzsche , Henri Bergson , William James , and others. Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung also had a strong influence ^{[ source not specified 2817 days ]} .
Modernism did away with the old style in the first three decades of the 20th century and radically redefined possible literary forms. The main writers of this period:

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   Modernism in the visual arts
   

Modernism in architecture
Main article: Architectural modernism
The expression "modernism in architecture" is often used as a synonym for the term "modern architecture", but the latter term is still broader. Modernism in architecture covers the work of the pioneers of modern architecture and their followers in the time period from the late 1900s, early 1920s and to the 1970s - 1980s (in Europe ), when new trends arose in architecture. The emergence of modernism is associated with social changes in the social environment of that time. It reflected the moods, views and tastes of people who in the 19th century made a real industrial revolution. These people were bankers , industrialists and merchants , and it was for them that this culture was created. In everyday life, modernism has received the name "millionaire style" ^[9] .
In specialized literature, the term "architectural modernism" corresponds to the English terms " modern architecture ", " modern movement " or " modern ", used in the same context. The expression "modernism" is sometimes used as a synonym for the concept of "modern architecture"; or as the name of a style (in English literature - " modern ").
Architectural modernism includes architectural trends such as European functionalism of the 1920s and 1930s, constructivism and rationalism in Russia in the 1920s, the Bauhaus movement in Germany, the architectural art deco style, international style , brutalism , organic architecture . Thus, each of these phenomena is one of the branches of a common tree, architectural modernism.
The main representatives of architectural modernism are the pioneers of modern architecture Frank Lloyd Wright , Walter Gropius , Richard Neutra , Ludwig Mies van Der Rohe , Le Corbusier , Alvar Aalto , Oscar Niemeyer , and some others.
Criticism

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   Modernism in literature
   

Opponents of modernism were Maxim Gorky ^[10] and Mikhail Lifshits
The main problem was not the objects depicted, but the very method of creating these images (that is, not “what”, but “how”). The task of the artist is not to achieve a resemblance to reality, but to attract the eye with lines and spots organized in a certain way. Thus, Wassily Kandinsky discovered in schematism the power to evoke certain free associations; Paul Signac turned everything visible into a real network of myriad points of light; with the famous Paul Gauguin, forms have become transitional combinations of color spots that can take the viewer from the industrial metropolises to the very source of civilization; at Gustav Klimt, images began to dissolve into decorative splendor
The structure of the theory of literature as a science There is a tradition, represented by authoritative experts, according to which, within the framework of literary theory, poetics is singled out as the most important part, and at the same time it is divided into theoretical and historical. Such a division is carried out, in essence, according to the principle of synchrony / diachrony. Like language (in relation to which this principle was introduced by F. de Saussure), 1 Companion A. Demon of theory. Literature and common sense. - M., 2001. - S. 17-20. 13 fiction, being a systematically organized and at the same time historically developing "language" of verbal art, can and should be considered in these two aspects. This tradition is followed by the authors of the textbook "Theory of Literature" in 2 volumes - Tamarchenko, Tyupa, Broitman . The structure of the theory of literature proposed by them as a science has some points of contact with the idea and construction of the textbook "Theory of Literature" by V.E. Khalizev . As the author puts it, “the theory of literature... has various aspects and sections. Its central link is general poetics, also called theoretical. This is the doctrine of a literary work, its composition, structure and functions, as well as the types and genres of literature. Along with general poetics, theoretical literary criticism includes teachings about the essence of literature as an art form, as well as about the laws of its presence and movement in history (the theory of the literary process). Note, however, that unlike us, the scientist, firstly, removes from general poetics the question of the essence of literature as an art form, and secondly , he supplements this discipline with the “theory of the literary process”, and not with historical poetics, which is by no means the same thing. same. In the theory of literature, according to popular belief, in addition to poetics, there is also the methodology of literary studies, as well as poetry. According to the team of authors of the four-volume "Theory of Literature" (IMLI), the theory of literature includes a number of important scientific topics: 1) the epistemology of literature: the doctrine of the aesthetic attitude of literature to reality and the nature and features of its figurative comprehension, the epistemology of the image, its internal structure, regularities in the development of imagery, problems of artistry, nationality, aesthetic ideal, artistic method; 2) ontology of literature: the doctrine of the nature of a literary work and its social existence and functioning. Questions of plot and composition, themes and ideas, literary hero, character, style and its historical variability, form and content; 3) morphology of literature: the doctrine of genera, types and genres of literature; 4) poetics, semiotics 14 and rhetoric of literature: the doctrine of the literary language and artistic speech, as well as the system of tropes. Problems of literature as a language in its aesthetic function; 5) receptive aesthetics: the doctrine of the artistic perception of a literary work as a dialogic interaction between the work and the reader. Problems of the immutability of the text and the variability of the content of a literary work, the interaction of the life experience of the writer, recorded in the work, with the life experience of the reader in the process of perceiving the work; 6) hermeneutics and axiology of literature: the doctrine of the meaning and evaluation of a literary work, the art of interpretation and evaluation. Methodology of literary-critical and literary analysis; 7) historical poetics and dialectics of the history of literature: the doctrine of the literary process and its features, the driving forces and patterns of literary development. Problems of literary trends, currents and schools, artistic interactions, comparative study of literature, consideration of various historically changing factors influencing literary development; 8) cultural studies of literature: literature as a phenomenon of culture, the study of the general laws of communication between literature and other forms of art, other forms of social consciousness, as well as other areas of culture. Theory of literature and related sciences Literary criticism includes as separate disciplines: theory of literature, history of literature, literary criticism. These three parts of literary criticism are interconnected and supplemented by auxiliary literary sciences and sciences that interact with literary theory. These are axiology, narratology , semiotics of literature, rhetoric, textual criticism, bibliography, historiography, paleography and others. Literary theory interacts with philosophy and a number of related sciences: sociology, linguistics, art history and others. The theory of literature is especially close to aesthetics and ethics, to psychology and history, to the history of social thought in particular. Both history and theory of literature, although in different forms, but with an equal degree of obligation, are called upon to consider literature as a certain ideological and artistic system and comprehend the patterns of its historical development. Both the theory and the history of literature include and represent the interaction of the "structural" and "genetic" series—it is in this interdependence of both series that the principle of the unity of the historical and the logical is realized in both sciences. However, the means and methods of research are different for the theoretician and the historian of literature, as are the immediate tasks facing them and the methods of processing the initial empirical material. The theorist seeks to determine the essence of the developing system, the historian characterizes the very process of formation and development of certain forms of this system. According to A. Companion , the theory of literature is "skeptical (critical) apprenticeship", " a metacritical point of view, the task of which is to interrogate and inquire into the premises of any critical practice." It “poses the same questions that historians and critics constantly face about specific texts, they simply assume that the answers to these questions are already known. Theory reminds us that these questions are problematic, that there are many ways to answer them; relativism is inherent in it” 2 . Any science, by definition, of course, must have its own terminology. In a general sense, a number of terms in literary criticism, of course, exist, for example: composition, plot, plot, genre, drama, sonnet, versification, etc. True, literary criticism often draws a supply of words and concepts from philosophy, aesthetics, sometimes in some assessments it merges with ethics, borrows terms from psychology, even linguistics. At the same time, many terms used by literary critics do not have the same precision, 2 Companion A. Demon theory. Literature and common sense. - M., 2001. - P. 16 which is characteristic of terms and concepts in other sciences. This is due to the peculiarities of the subject of study in literary criticism, as well as the fact that literary schools and trends collide with each other, in addition, a number of literary researchers gravitate towards metaphorical language, and sometimes even essayism. Historicism as a scientific method. Difficulties of historicism and its non-absolute character. The method of literary theory is the knowledge accumulated by this discipline, which appears before the researcher in a filmed form and transformed into cognitive attitudes, principles, approaches to the subject and requirements for mental activity, methods of obtaining new knowledge. Conclusions The subject of the theory of literature is the nature, essence and functioning of literature, the general patterns of creation of a work of art and the historical development of literature. Literary criticism is included as separate disciplines: Literary theory is one of the sections of literary criticism along with the history of literature and literary criticism. These three parts of literary criticism are interconnected and supplemented by auxiliary literary sciences and sciences that interact with literary theory. Depending on the interaction with different directions in these sciences and on the reliance on certain philosophical and aesthetic teachings and schools, depending on the methodological approaches to the theoretical problems of literature, various schools and directions are formed in this discipline.
and for the aesthetic assimilation of reality. All aspects of life: political, social, philosophical, moral, psychological, etc. - receive aesthetic expression and aesthetic evaluation in art, that is, they are correlated with the "laws of beauty". Art preserves and conveys the experience of society, introduces each person to a truly human, spiritualized existence, makes him a person. 22 Aesthetics is a scientific discipline. Beauty as an aesthetic category.

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   Modernism in architecture
   

Beautiful and aesthetically pleasing. Aesthetic relations, their specificity, their objective (objective) and subjective prerequisites. The sphere of manifestation of beauty is extremely wide. It includes all the phenomena of social, spiritual life and nature, which, to one degree or another, help to reveal the positive qualities of people. Since beauty satisfies not utilitarian, but spiritual needs of people, aesthetic pleasure is a spiritual feeling. It should not be confused with the pleasure that arises, say, when eating delicious food, but there is a certain connection between the utilitarian and the aesthetic. Historically, the utilitarian interest in the subject preceded its aesthetic appreciation. G. V. Plekhanov in his “Letters without an Address” convincingly proved that the primitive peoples considered beautiful, first of all, that which played a decisive role in their economic life. Aesthetic feeling, being spiritual in its essence, can naturally belong only to man. Even the most highly developed animals are unable to experience spiritual pleasures. To perceive the beautiful, one must have a developed aesthetic sense and consciousness. The human eye and ear have become aesthetically receptive in the course of centuries of industrial and social practice. Only as a result of historical "polishing", including under the influence of art, they were able to perceive all the richness of colors and sounds of the outside world. In the course of labor activity, man gradually subjugated nature, and its development proceeded both in the material and in the spiritual sphere. Reality gradually revealed its aesthetic charm to people. The more a person was freed from oppressive material worries, the wider he perceived the beauty, which is so rich in the life around him. From ancient times, nature was full of miracles, possessed phenomena capable of delivering aesthetic pleasure. But many millennia passed before people learned not only to understand beauty, but also to reflect it in their art. Reflecting the beautiful phenomena of life, art enhances their impact, conveying not only objective beauty, but also the artist's subjective experience of it, his assessment, the affirmation of these phenomena. It becomes a powerful means of educational, spiritual influence on a person. A work of art is a certain real object or thing (building, painting, sculpture, musical notation, book) and at the same time a certain fictional object, the whole world that the observer, reader or listener perceives through the object or thing in front of him. The first ("material") side exists independently of someone's consciousness, the second cannot exist without an actively perceiving (" co-creative ") consciousness. The Polish philosopher R. Ingarden characterized the aesthetic experience as a typical and regular “multi-phase” process, which is nothing more than the active formation of an aesthetic object by the contemplator. Cognitive and evaluative nature of aesthetic emotions, their function and social and moral meaning. Aestheticism as the absolutization of aesthetic values to the detriment of all others, including civil and ethical ones . Problems of aesthetics in the XX century. The fruits of artistic creativity as an aesthetic value. Reflection of aesthetically valuable art. Ignoring the links between artistic creativity and the aesthetic in many theoretical works of the second half of the 19th - first half of the 20th centuries. Discussion about the essence of the aesthetic in the 1950s and 60s. (“ naturalists ” and “social activists”). The concepts of "aesthetic properties of reality" and "aesthetic attitude to reality". Art as a cognitive and evaluative activity The ancient theory of imitation (mimesis) as the first attempt to understand the cognitive principles of art. In the ancient theory of mimesis, attention was drawn 24 to the fact that the usual recreation of the surrounding world by means of art is not interesting, because in this case it captures a lot of accidental and secondary. What attracts in art is such a reflection of the world, such a “ configuration ” of it, which is focused not just on plausibility, but on the expression of the deep essence of the world, i.e. truth. By truth (as opposed to plausibility), Aristotle understood the possibility of penetrating through the outer shell of a phenomenon into its true nature. The paradox of artistic knowledge lies in the fact that in order to convey meanings that do not lie on the surface, an artistic re-creation of the real world is necessary, when familiar things and phenomena enter into unpredictable relationships on the artistic territory. Thus, art obtains truth not by simple imitation of reality, but through condensation, consolidation, modification of real objectivity, a special organization of the spatial and temporal composition of the work. The result of the artist's cognitive activity is not abstract formulas and concepts, but emotionally expressive images that arouse a certain aesthetic feeling. Strengths and weaknesses of imitation theory. An understanding of art, dating back to Plato and medieval aesthetics, as a conventional designation of certain entities ( symbolization ). The emphasis of this theory on the generalizing principle in art and the absolutization of its semantic uncertainty. Formed in the 18th century and developed in the 19th century. the concept of art as the development of characters and the creation of images. The concept of character in the theory of artistic creativity. The concept of the typical and typification in art. Themes of works of art.
Postmodern ideologists declare that at the beginning of the 20th century, the classical type of thinking of the modern era changes to non-classical, and at the end of the century - to post-non-classical . The formation of the postmodern era took place in the 1960s-1970s, it is connected and logically follows from the processes of the modern era as a reaction to the crisis of its ideas, as well as to the so-called "death" of superfoundations : god (Nietzsche), author (Bart), man ( humanitarianism
The prerequisites for postmodernism arose much earlier. So in mathematics, back in 1829, Lobachevsky in his work “On the Principles of Geometry” presented a non-Euclidean geometry of space, as free from contradictions as Euclidean. Thus, he showed that space can be described by two different incompatible but internally logically consistent geometries.
Kurt Gödel proved in 1930 that the consistency of the axioms of arithmetic cannot be proven from the axioms of arithmetic themselves (unless the arithmetic is inconsistent), nor from its incompleteness.
Alan Turing showed the existence of algorithmically unsolvable problems, in particular he proved in 1936 that the halting problem is unsolvable on a Turing machine. The existence of algorithmically unsolvable problems means that there is no universal solver algorithm that would create a solution to the problem, even if its exact logical description exists.