Implicit and explicit semantic structures

1.3 Ways to complicate a sentence

As part of a simple sentence, several semi-predicative lines can be expressed, which complicate its predicative structure. Complication is a syntactic process of changing the structure of a syntactic unit, the essence of which lies in the fact that the structure turns from simple to complex. Constituent units are mutually dependent and linked by dominant/subordinate clause relationships. Basically, complication occurs as part of the predicate, i.e. verb phrase and object. The complicating element takes on the function of expressing the connection with the subject. The second part of the predicate acquires the morphological structure of a non-predicative form.
There are three types of complication depending on the nature of the complicating element: ) active-verbal complication; (John may come.)
) passive verbal complication; (John is expected to come.)
) adjective complication. (John is likely to come.) In terms of content, a certain parallelism is established between these complications.
Due to the variety of elements included in the composition of the predicate as its active-verbal complication, several groups of the predicate are distinguished on the basis of the content of the complicating element (i.e. complicator).
A complicator can pass:
1. Modal characteristic of the connection of actions with the subject; For example: I must go , she said. Complicators: can, may, must, have to, be to, should, would, have got to, dare, need.
2. Specific characteristics of actions (stage of development of actions: beginning, continuation, end), its regularity; For example: He began to laugh. Complicators: be going, be about, begin, commence, get, come, set going, continue, proceed, go on, keep on, stop, cease, quit, and others.
3. Actions seem to be taking place; For example: She appeared to examine her teaspoon for a moment Complicators: seem, appear.
4. Anticipation of action; For example: I happened to be busy at Bursary. Complicators: happen, prove, turn out.
5. The relation of the subject to action; For example: You wanted to see the room Complicators: want, wish, will, like, love, long, die, hate, intend, mean, be going and others.
6. Reality of action; For example: He failed to read the book, which means - He didn't read the book. He managed to read the slip > He read the slip Complicators: affect, fail, pretend denies the reality of the action; manage, contrive asserts the reality of action.
7. The feasibility of the action; I can do my homework tomorrow. 8. Positional characteristics of the subject of action. This type of complication includes verbs in the predicate, meaning the position or movement of the subject in space: sit, stand, lie, come, go. In this case, the main element of the predicate takes the form of a participle. The first complicating element is weakened in its real meaning, and therefore this combination, for example: sat looking, does not allow us to consider it as a contaminated predicate (or a double predicate). For example: I sat looking at _he carpet. The second type of compound predicate is passive-verbal complication, in which the complicator is in the form of a passive voice, mainly verbs denoting the process of mental activity: For example:
Distantly from the school the two fifteen bell was heard ringing. Four structural-semantic groups of passive verbal complication are established:
a) verbs denoting processes of mental activity, such as be supposed;
b) verbs denoting communication processes, such as be reported;
c) verbs that have the effect of the subject of the subject sentence, such as be allowed;
d) verbs denoting the processes of physical perception, such as be heard.
This type of complication is also characterized by modal meaning, the transfer of the speaker's assessment of the reality of the corresponding actions, facts. The speaker, as it were, relieves himself of responsibility for the reliability of the reported fact.
This is confirmed by applying nominalization transformations to these sentences. John is expected to come in London today > It s expected that John comes in London today > John s coming in London is expected. In adjective-complicated predicates, the element of complication names the physical, mental or other characteristic of the subject, which is put in connection with the action indicated by the subsequent infinitive. The general structural content of the complication is defined as the relationship between the subject and the action.
Adjectives, participles and words of the state category are used as a complicating element. By semantics, complicating elements are divided into subgroups: A significant part of the complicating element denotes the ability, necessity, possibility (for the subject to perform an action). In terms of semantics, this subgroup is correlated with the group of the modal characteristic of verbal complication. For example: He felt utterly unable to speak.
· significant element of complication names the mental characteristic of the subject expressing the attitude of the subject to the action:
glad, happy, proud, pleased, sad, sorry and others.
Depending on the morphological class of the complicating element, semantically equivalent transformations are possible in these constructions.
A) He was happy to come > To come made him happy > It made him happy.
B) He was surprised to hear that > ​​To hear that surprised him > It surprised him to hear that.
We have identified three types of complication and revealed their semantic function. The structure of a simple sentence can also be complicated by using various introductory elements that make up an additional level of modality.
Sentences with secondary semi-predicative structures
In the linguistic literature, there are two opinions about the nature of the relationship between introductory elements and the sentence containing them. Foreign authors and Russian linguists of the pre-Soviet period proceed from the understanding of parenthesis as a phenomenon that is grammatically unrelated to its environment. Soviet grammarians single out the connection of parenthesis with an inclusive sentence as an independent method of syntactic connection along with subordination and subordination.
The provision on the existence of such a connection was put forward on the material of the Russian language by A.G. Rudnev, calling it a correlative connection, or ratio. Correlative connection is revealed by semantic and grammatical features. The former include directly semantic connections of the introductory elements with the sentence, the latter - the fact of their inclusion in the sentence structure and positional proximity to those of its components with which they correlate. It seems to us that the point of view of those authors who consider introductory and interstitial elements not as one syntactic phenomenon, but as a phenomenon grammatically unrelated to their surroundings, seems convincing. A.M. Peshkovsky considers introductory constructions to be foreign, “internally alien to the proposal that shelters them” [33, p.157].
However, their heterogeneity lies only in the isolation of the position, intonational and grammatical emphasis in the composition of the sentence. In semantic terms, they are closely and directly related to the content of the statement. A simple sentence can be complicated by words and structures that, being included in its composition for one reason or another, do not enter into a subordinate relationship with the members of this sentence, i.e. do not form phrases with them and do not show grammatical dependence on them. In this sense, introductory constructions (secondary semi-predicative structures) are considered grammatically unrelated to the members of the sentence.
Depending on the location of the semi-predicative lines, the meaning of the entire statement changes, therefore, according to the location they are divided: at the beginning of a sentence (Apparently, he is a smart person). at the end of a sentence (He is a smart person, apparently). in the middle of a sentence (He is a kind person and, apparently, smart). Indeed, looking at the examples, it is difficult not to notice the semantic difference between these sentences, as an integral part of the general understanding of the statement. According to the functional value, introductory constructions can be conditionally divided: an introductory word or a combination of words characterize the entire sentence (change the semantics as a whole); Miss Caroline apparently thought I was lying. Miss Caroline didn't seem to believe me.
If we exclude the adverb apparently, which expresses the subjective modality in this case, then the semantics of the message will change. That is, the proposal will turn into an affirmative one, and this contradicts reality. an introductory word or a combination of words refers to individual words in a sentence (expresses a subjective assessment of something, which also changes the meaning of the statement). To return to your question I naturally expected the visit. Returning to your question, I naturally expected this visit. If we consider the semantics of the sentence, it becomes obvious that there were certain prerequisites for this visit, and to express this, the adverb naturally would be used.
The specific function of introductory words led to the emergence of a special lexico-grammatical group - modal words. This group includes adverbial origin words like obviously, apparently, manifestly, evidently, of course, certainly, no doubt, surely, to be sure, probably, very likely, presumably, some of them perform only the function of introductory words. A side function of many introductory words is the allied function. The difference in sentences by subjective modality - the degree of reliability of the content of the sentence from the point of view of the speaker - is their difference both in form and content [11, p.56].
Therefore, the modality of this type is the basis of the formal grammatical classification of sentences according to the modal feature. Sentences of various types, divided by subjective modality, form a formal paradigmatic series. She did right. She did the right thing.
Statement of facts. She probably did right. She probably did the right thing. When using an introductory word, the semantics of the sentence changes and takes on the meaning of the possibility that she did the right thing. She possibly did right. She may have done the right thing. When using an introductory word, the semantics of the sentence changes and takes on the values ​​of the probability that she acted fairly. She of course did right. She certainly did the right thing. In this case, we see that the meaning of the general sense of the sentence has become more affirmative , and there is no doubt that she did the right thing.
Unlike declarative and interrogative sentences, which are differentiated by subjective modality, incentive sentences with a verb-predicate in the imperative mood do not differ in the degree of reliability of the transmitted content. In these sentences, modal words do not express the degree of certainty, but the intensity of the impulse. Maybe we'll do it together. Of course we will do it together. The number of degrees of certainty in different languages ​​varies. In all languages, at least three degrees of validity of the content of the sentence are expressed: simple, categorical and problematic [11, p. 78].
But in many languages, several degrees of certainty are distinguished within the limits of problematic and categorical certainty. The exception is simple certainty, which has no degrees. It is possible to imagine a semantic scale of certainty-uncertainty, on one pole of which there are means of expressing the modality of problematic certainty with the greatest degree of doubt, on the other - means of expressing the modality of categorical certainty with the speaker's greatest confidence in what is being reported. As a result of the survey, Definitely (2.25) I know for sure (2.50) Confident (2.63) Obvious (3.75) Must be (6.63) Think (9.38) I guess (10.75) In my opinion (11.38) · One gets the impression (11.88) Seems to me (12.25) Probably ( 12.50) Apparently (13.00 ) It seems to me ( 14.38) Possibly (14.75) Perhaps (16.00) Maybe (16.25) Doubt (19.75) The most important feature of the assessment is that it always contains a subjective factor that interacts with the objective. An evaluative statement, even if the subject of the assessment is not directly expressed in it, implies a value relationship between the subject of the judgment (the person from whom the assessment comes) and its object (the object or phenomenon to which the assessment refers) [37, p. 74-80].
Structurally, introductory constructions are divided into: introductory words, phrases, and sentences, i.e. from one word to several. Introductory sentences perform the same functions as introductory words and word combinations.
They differ from them only structurally, since they reproduce certain schemes of a simple sentence, both two-part and, more often, one-part. Introductory words - words and phrases of words that are not grammatically related to any of the members of the sentence; by means of introductory words, a modal, expressive and emotional evaluation of the message is carried out. Usually in a sentence it is distinguished by pauses, lowered intonations and a somewhat accelerated tempo. Introductory words are semantically divided: The degree of reliability of the information (probably, it seems). I didn't miss her, but Jim probably did. Emotional -evaluative (fortunately, unfortunately). Fortunately for Miss Caroline, the bell rank and the class filed out for [2, p.25].
Luckily for Miss Caroline, the bell rang and everyone went to breakfast. · Ways and techniques of expressing thoughts (so to speak, in short, more precisely). So to speak , summer was on the way; Jem and I awaited it with impatience [2, p.39].
Summer was coming, so to speak ; Jim and I couldn't wait for him. · An indication of the source of information (they say, according to rumors). According to Miss Stephanie, Boo was sitting in the living room cutting some items from the Maycomb Tribune to paste in his scrapbook [2, p.14.]
According to her , the Scarecrow was sitting in the living room, cutting out some notes from the Maycomb Tribune and pasting them into an album. Establishing contact with the interlocutor (you know, listen).
Definition of the train of thought. Firstly I forgot about him, secondly I had not time for it. We have classified secondary semi-predicative structures by function, by place, by structure, and by semantic meaning.
And they found that depending on the location of the semi-predicative lines, the meaning of the entire statement changes;
according to their functional meaning, introductory constructions can be conditionally divided into introductory words or a combination of words that characterize the entire sentence as a whole or individual words in the sentence; introductory constructions are semantically divided into certain groups: according to the degree of reliability of information, according to the possibility of establishing contact with the interlocutor, according to the definition of the train of thought.