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Physical, Social, and Metaphysical Self
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- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- Atman as Self in the bhagavadgItA
- Elements of Metaphysical Self Elements of Physical Self Elements of Social Self
- Elements of Psychological Self Figure 4.2
- I Know I think (therefore I am) SELF Brahma Social Self (ever expanding) Detachment Self-Focused
- Using Me-Me More-More True Self (merging in Brahma ) Figure 4.3
- Concept of Physical Self in the vedic sandhyA
- Concept of Self in the upaniSads
- Concept of Self in yoga
Physical, Social, and Metaphysical Self Examining concepts of self that have been explored from diverse perspectives in India, Bharati concluded that compared to the Western perspective, self is defined in a rather unique perspective in the Indian worldview. The self has been studied 68 4 Indian Concept of Self as “an ontological entity” in Indian philosophy from time immemorial and “far more intensively and extensively than any of the other societies” in the East (Confucian, Chinese, or Japanese) or the West (either secular thought or Judeo–Christian–Muslim traditions) (Bharati, 1985, p. 185). On the other hand, psychologists who have followed the Western research tradition in understanding the Indian social self have found mixed results. In view of this, some researchers have attempted to understand the social self in the Indian context (Bhawuk, 1999, 2004, 2005; Sinha, 1965). As seen in the literature in both philosophy and psychology, there is much evidence that the core of Indian self is metaphysical (Dasgupta, 1922–1955; Paranjpe, 1984, 1998; Sinha, 1933). The metaphysical self is most commonly visualized as Atman, which is situated in a living being as a result of past karma. Of all the living beings, human beings are believed to be the only ones who can pursue mokSa (or liberation), enlightenment, jnAna (or knowledge), or self-realization. This concept of ultimate state to be pursued by human beings is shared with the Buddhists who call it nirvana, the major difference being that Buddhists deny the existence of Atman and refer to self as anAtta. Thus, the metaphysical self is embod- ied in a physical body, which constitutes an important part of Indian concept of self. Beyond the physical self exist psychological self and social self, and both these concepts are brimming with cultural constructions. For example, the caste system is an important part of Indian social self, which has relevance for the Indian population and the Indian Diaspora but little relevance for other cultures. Similarly, constructs Figure 4.1 Indian concept of self: Physical, social, psychological, and metaphysical 69 Atman as Self in the bhagavadgItA of manas, citta, buddhi, ahaGkAra, antaHkaraNa, and so forth are critical to understanding the psychology of Indians, which are likely to be emic constructs. Figure 4.1 is a schematic representation of this conceptualization of the Indian self. In the treatment of the biological self, Indian doctors, unlike their Western counterparts, make different assumptions about how the human body works. Ayurveda , a quite sophisticated system of medical treatment considers illness as a consequence of imbalance in the three basic elements present in human body, kapha , vAta, and pitta, 2 and treatment is based on trying to create a balance in the body. With the increased awareness and understanding of mind–body connections, and the success of Ayurveda, acupuncture, and other traditional healing systems in the West, there is some discourse to go beyond the quite mechanical Western notion of physical self as the only way to understand human self. Paranjpe’s monumental work (1984, 1998) is an example of a synthesis of various conceptualizations of self. Paranjpe (1986, 1998) argued that the self is the experiential center of cogni- tion, volition, and affect in that it is simultaneously the knower (Atman), the enjoyer or sufferer (bhoktA), and the agent (kartA). Atman as Self in the bhagavadgItA The metaphysical self or Atman (or soul) 3 is defined as the real or true self in the bhagavadgItA , and its characteristics are presented in verses 2.17 through 22. Atman is that which is not susceptible to destruction, something that does not go 2 In Ayurveda it is posited that when the three elements (tRdhAtus), kapha, vAta, and pitta, are not in balance, then they give rise to tRdoza – kapha, vAta, and pitta. tRdozas can be understood as the three bodily humors, similar to the four humors in Western classical medical science that were called black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. The imbalance among these four made one ill. kapha is the energy needed to lubricate and rejuvenate, vAta is the energy of movement, and pitta is the energy of digestion and metabolism. The five elements prithavi-earth, Apa-water, teja-fire, vAyu -air, and Akaza-space interact to create the three dozas. kapha is formed from earth and water and provides the fluid for all elements and systems of the body. In balance, kapha is expressed as love, calmness, and forgiveness. Out of balance, it leads to attachment, greed and envy. vAta is made of Space and Air. It governs breathing, blinking, muscle and tissue movement, pulsation of the heart, and all movements at the cell level. In balance, vAta promotes creativity and flexibility. Out of balance, vAta produces fear and anxiety. pitta is made up of fire and water and expresses as the body’s metabolic system. It governs digestion, absorption, assimilation, nutrition, metabo- lism, and body temperature. In balance, pitta promotes understanding and intelligence. Out of balance, pitta arouses anger, hatred, and jealousy. From: http://www.knowledgecommission.org/ tridosha.html . 3 Some scholars argue that the translation of Atman as soul is inaccurate and should be avoided (Bharati, 1985). Though most Indian psychologists that I know use the word soul as a translation of Atman, to be consistent with the scholarly tradition, I use the word Atman instead of soul in this book. The Western reader is stuck with an emic construct that at best is “somewhat similar” to soul in their cognitive framework or at worst is a totally alien construct without translation. For example, in Christianity, soul is either sent to heaven or hell based on one’s performance in one single life, whereas in Hinduism, Atman goes through innumerable life cycles. Thus, though soul refers to something not physical, it is not quite Atman. 70 4 Indian Concept of Self through modification, is unfathomable or unknowable, and eternal. 4 Atman does not kill or get killed 5 ; it is never born, nor does it ever die; and it transcends time. 6 Atman is unborn, eternal, permanent, and ancient, and it does not die with the body. Using the metaphor of clothes, the human body is viewed like the clothes of the Atman ; as we get rid of old clothes, so does the Atman leave the human body. 7 The Atman is characterized as one that cannot be cut into pieces by weapons (i.e., it is unbreakable or that which cannot be pierced), burned by fire, soaked by water (i.e., it is insoluble), or dried by wind. 8 In verses 2.24, 25, and 29, the Atman is further characterized as all pervading, stable, immobile, and eternal 9 ; as unmanifest, beyond perception, and unmodifiable 10 ; and described to be simply amazing to see, amazing to talk about, and amazing to listen to; so amazing that most of us do not understand it. 11 These verses categorically state that there are two aspects of human existence – the body and Atman; the body is temporary, and Atman is eternal. We also find support for the model presented in Figure 4.1 in other texts. For example, the six verses of the zivo’haM stotra written by Adi zankara clearly alludes to the metaphysical, physical, psychological, and the social self (Bhawuk, 2005). Adi zankara starts by negating the psychological self – I am not the manas (or mind), buddhi (or intellect), ahaGkAr (or ego) 12 ; and then physical self – ear, tongue, nose, or eyes. Then he negates the social self – I am not ether, earth, fire, or air, 13 and he ends the verse by declaring the real self to be the metaphysical self – I am happiness (cidAnand), I am ziva, I am ziva. He also denies such socially constructed concepts as merit, sin, sacred chants, visiting of holy places, studying of the vedas, performance of spiritual rites (yajna), as well as emotions like happiness 4 avinAzi or anAzin, avyaya, aprameya, and nitya. 5 Verse 2.19: ya enaM vetti hantAram yazcainaM manyate hatam; ubhau tau na vijAnIto nAyaM hanti na hanyate. 6 Verse 2.20: na jAyate mRyate va kadAcin nAyam bhUtva bhavitA va na bhUyah ; ajo nityaH zAzvato’yam purANo na hanyate hanyamAne zarIre. 7 Verse 2.22: vAsAMsi jIrNAni yathA vihAya navAni gRhnAti naro’parANi, tathA zarIrAnNi vihAya jIrNanyanyAni saMyAti navAni dehI. 8 Verse 2.23: nainaM chindanti zastrANi nainam dahati pAvakaH, na cainam kledayantyapo na zoSayati mArutaH. 9 Verse 2.24: acchedyo’ayamadAhyo’yamakledyo’zoSya eva ca, nityaH sarvagataH sthANura calo’yaM sanAtanaH. 10 Verse 2.25: avyakto’yamacintyo’yamavikaryo’yamucyate. tasmAdevaM viditvainaMnAnu zocitu marhasi. 11 Azcaryavatpasyati kazcidenamazcaryavadvadati tathaiva cAnyaH; AzcaryavaccainamanyaH zRNoti shrutvApyenaM veda na caiva kazcit . 12 Though mind, intellect, and ego are not a part of our physical self and are more a part of our psychological self, they seem to be as concrete as the other organs, and we talk about them much like our physical organs. 13 In the Indian social construction of self, self is argued to be made of five elements: ether, earth, fire, air, and ego. Since this in not a physiological fact, I am positing that it is the part of the Indian socially constructed self. 71 Atman as Self in the bhagavadgItA and sorrow. In the final verse, he describes the real self as one without an alternative, formless, as the power everywhere, and as the power of all the physical organs. He further defines the metaphysical self as something immeasurable or nondiscernable and negates even nonattachment and the desire for ultimate freedom. All six verses end with – I am happiness, I am ziva, I am ziva (see Figure 4.2). Thus, we can see that the Indian concept of self does include physical, social, and metaphysical self, but the metaphysical self is considered the real self, and the objective of human life is to realize the real self. The social self not only consists of physical or psychological traits sampled more often by individualists who have an independent concept of self, but also the social relationships and identity descriptors sampled more frequently by collectivists who have an interdependent concept of self. Besides these there are other “Elements of the Growing Self” (see Figure 4.1 ) that get added to our identity box as we advance in our careers and acquire wealth, house, special equipment, and professional success. There are many ecological factors that also affect the development of our social self. For example, while pursuing a materi- alistic life, we are often motivated to do what our neighbors or colleagues do, aptly expressed in the expression “keeping up with the Jones’.” We also indulge in conspicuous consumption to gratify our various needs and add to our social self in the process. Finally, we are constantly drawn toward the ego-enhancing Physical Self Metaphysical Self Social Self Expanding Social Self as a Consequence of Following Material Life Style Contracting Social Self as a Consequence of Following Karma Yoga Happiness,ziva (1-6), Without an alternative, formless, power of organs and power everywhere, detachment, freedom, immeasurable (6) ether, earth, fire, air (1) caste, father, mother, birth, brother, friend, teacher, student (5) ears, tongue, nose, eyes (1) hands, feet, and generative organs (2) Elements of Metaphysical Self Elements of Physical Self Elements of Social Self Psychological Self manas, buddhi, ahaMkAra, citta (1) vital force, 5 vayus, 7 elements that make human body, 5 sheaths of human body, (2) hatred, passion, greed, delusion, pride, jealousy, pursuit of duty, wealth, desire, & salvation (3) merit, sin, happiness, sorrow, sacred chants, visiting holy places, studying the vedas, performing rites, consuming, being consumed, consumer (4) Elements of Psychological Self Figure 4.2 Indian concept of self (with examples from Adi zankara’s zivo’haM, stotra) 72 4 Indian Concept of Self objects or luxury products that are aggressively advertised by companies like Louis Vuitton (“Vuitton Machine,” 2004). All these lead to an endless, perhaps infinite, growth in our social self. This explosive growth of social self is much like the expansion of the universe captured in the entropy principle (i.e., entropy of the universe is increasing). Figure 4.1 is a schematic representation of this expanding social self. In the light of Figures 4.1 and 4.2 , it is quite clear that the social self includes both interdependent and independent concepts of selves, and Indians are likely to sample both of them (Sinha & Tripathi, 1994). In addition, in the Indian conceptu- alization of self, the self also extends to the metaphysical self (i.e., Atman), beyond the social self, and so an Indian is likely to also have a metaphysical concept of self. Interestingly, since all Atmans are a part of the divine, they are construed as being actually identical. When Atman meets with the Supreme Being, brahman, it is said to become a part of the Supreme Being. In that paradigm, when one experiences the real self, one becomes a part of the infinite supreme being. In other words, much like the social self that has the potential to grow infinitely, the real self has the potential to become a part of the infinite being. Thus, the Indian concept of self expands to be infinite socially and contracts socially for the true self to expand to be infinite metaphysically (Bhawuk, 2008c; see Figure 4.3 ). This conceptualization of the self is critical to the understanding of psychological processes in the Indian cultural context. I Know I think (therefore I am) SELF Brahma Social Self (ever expanding) Detachment Self-Focused Internal Development Using neti-neti & idaM na mama Attachment Driven by Social Comparison External Achievement Orientation Using Me-Me & More-More True Self (merging in Brahma) Figure 4.3 Indian concept of self: The social and spiritual dimensions [adapted from Bhawuk, (2008c)] 73 Concept of Self in the upaniSads Concept of Physical Self in the vedic sandhyA Physical self is emphasized in the oldest of Indian scriptures. For example, it is said in the Rgveda, “azmA bhavatu nastanUH,” or, our body should be like a stone or thunderbolt. In the vedic times, people started and ended their day with a sandhyA, which was done right after sunrise and before sunset. This practice has continued to this day and gurukul (traditional Sanskrit medium schools) students are taught to do it daily. People who are raised in the Hindu tradition, especially Brahmins, also practice it. And it is encouraged by the Arya samAj tradition started by Swami Dayanand Saraswati, and many of the followers of this tradition also practice it. In doing sandhyA, one starts by praying for strength and wellness of various body parts starting with mouth (vak), nose (praNaH), eyes (chakSuH), ears (zrotraM), navel (nabhiH), heart (hRdayaM), throat (kanThaH), head (ziraH), arms (bAhubhyAM), and both sides of hands (kartalkarapriSthe). 14 In another invocation, one goes from head to feet by thinking about throat, heart, and navel, and then back to head. 15 In doing a vedic agnihotra also, one starts by touching and praying for strength in various body parts. 16 The objective is to be aware of the body, and to take care of it. Thus, the physical body is paid attention to and given importance despite the primacy of the Atman and the spiritual journey that would lead one to the realiza- tion of Atman or union with God. Concept of Self in the upaniSads The above model is consistent with the paJca koza (or five sheaths) model of the self presented in the taittirIya upaniSad. paJca koza is used by the practitioners of Ayurveda and includes annamaya, prANamaya, manomaya, vijnAnamaya, and Anandamaya in decreasing order of grossness; annamaya is the most gross and Anandamaya is the most subtle. In fact only the first two annamaya and prANa maya refer to concrete elements like human body and breathing, whereas the other three are what psychologists would call constructs, or socially constructed 14 om vAk vAk, om prANaH prANaH, om chakSuH chakSuH, om zrotraM zrotraM, om nAbhiH, om hRdayaM, om kanThaH, om ziraH, om bAhubhyAM yazobalam, om kartalkarapriSThe . 15 om bhUH punAtu zirasi;om bhuvaH punAtu netrayoH; om svaH punAtu KanThe; om mahaH punAtu hRdaye; om janaH punAtu nAbhyAm; om tapaH punAtu pAdayoH; om satyam punAtu punaH zirasi; om khaM brahman punAtu sarvatra . 16 om vaGme Asye’stu; om nasorme prANo’astu; om akSNorme cakSurastu; om karNayorme zrotramastu; om bahvorme balamastu; om Urvorme ojo’stu; om ariSTAni me’aNgAni tanUstanvA me saha santu. 74 4 Indian Concept of Self ideas whose effects can be studied. annamaya refers to the body, which is nourished by the grains or anna, thus acquiring this label. prANamaya refers to the breathing and the related bodily processes and consequences. manomaya refers to manas, which is loosely and erroneously translated as mind. manas, as we will see below is the center for cognition, emotion, and behavioral intention as well as behavior, and hence it is wrong to translate it as mind. manas is clearly an emic construct that cannot be translated in English. vijnAnamaya refers to the faculty that helps us evalu- ate and discriminate, and Anandamaya refers to the metaphysical self. In the paJca koza model of the self, the social self is neglected, which is important to understand human psychology as well as emotion; therefore, the models presented in Figures 4.1 – 4.3 may be more useful. Concept of Self in yoga The importance given to the physical body can be seen in yoga, which includes postures that address each part of the body, both external and internal. For example, zirsAsan (head stand) is for the head and for improving blood circulation throughout the body; halAsana (plough posture) is for the backbone; mayurAsana (peacock posture) is for the internal organs in the stomach; matsyAsana (fish posture) is for neck and chest; and so forth. hathayoga or yogAsanas are used by those who pursue a spiritual life to prepare the body and mind for union with brahman. The health benefits of yogAsanas are ancillary to the ultimate goal of becoming one with brahman ; nevertheless, the importance of the physical body in pursuing a spiritual practice is emphasized in hathayoga. This spirit is reflected in many metaphors like human body is a temple, it is our responsibility to maintain the body as a gift from brahman, and so forth. Thus, concept of self in yoga clearly includes the physical self. We also find that much value is placed on the physical body in many tradi- tions of meditation that would be categorized as rAja yoga. For example, Swami Yoganand in his teachings on kriyA yoga placed importance on the body and suggested many exercises to become aware of various parts of the body to which one does not pay attention to in the daily activity (e.g., toes, body joints, and so forth). The purpose is to have consciousness flow in every limb of the body and thus prepare the body before sitting down to meditate. Thus, the physical self is an important part of Indian self in both meditation and yoga. It should be noted that importance of physical self often gets sidelined because of the many strictures placed on the value of human body in the scriptures, as also the constant reminder that human body is like a prison, a house with nine portals, a distraction, and that people should rise above the physical self and focus on realizing Atman. Despite such put downs, physical self is quite important in the Indian concept of self. |
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