International and Cultural Psychology For other titles published in this series, go to
Contents 1 The Global Need for Indigenous Psychology
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- Bu sahifa navigatsiya:
- 2 Spirituality in India: The Ever Growing Banyan Tree
- 3 Model Building from Cultural Insights
- 4 Indian Concept of Self
- 5 The Paths of Bondage and Liberation
- 6 A Process Model of Desire
- 7 A General Model of Peace and Happiness
- 8 karma : An Indian Theory of Work
- 9 Epistemology and Ontology of Indian Psychology
- 10 Toward a New Paradigm of Psychology
- 11 Summary and Implications
- References
- Spirituality Indigenous Psychology bhagavadgItA CONTRIBUTIONS 1. METHODOLOGY INDIGENOUS MODELS
Contents 1 The Global Need for Indigenous Psychology ....................................... 1 Reasons for Pursuing Indigenous Research .............................................. 1 Psychology in India ................................................................................... 6 Scope for Indigenizing Psychology .......................................................... 7 Cultural Variations in Group Dynamics .................................................... 10 Individualism and Collectivism: A Theoretical Framework ..................... 10 A Group Dynamics Model ........................................................................ 15 Exploring Cross-Cultural Validity of the Model ....................................... 16 An Indian Typology of Leaders ................................................................ 19 sannyAsi Leaders ...................................................................................... 20 karmayogi Leaders .................................................................................... 21 Pragmatic Leaders ..................................................................................... 22 Legitimate Nonleaders .............................................................................. 22 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 22 2 Spirituality in India: The Ever Growing Banyan Tree ....................... 25 Historical Analysis .................................................................................... 26 Case Analyses ........................................................................................... 29 Ramakrishna: One God, Different Paths ................................................... 29 Maharishi Mahesh Yogi: Bridging Science and Spirituality with TM .................................................................................................... 34 Osho Rajneesh: Bridging Sex and samAdhi ............................................. 37 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 40 3 Model Building from Cultural Insights ............................................... 47 Introduction ............................................................................................... 47 Culture of Science ..................................................................................... 48 The Indian Worldview............................................................................... 52 Consequences of the Indian Worldview .................................................... 54 Transcendental Meditation and Science ................................................... 55 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 58 xviii Contents 4 Indian Concept of Self ........................................................................... 65 Stages of Life and Concept of Self ........................................................... 65 Physical, Social, and Metaphysical Self ................................................... 67 Atman as Self in the bhagavadgItA ........................................................... 69 Concept of Physical Self in the vedic sandhyA ......................................... 73 Concept of Self in the upaniSads .............................................................. 73 Concept of Self in yoga ............................................................................. 74 Concept of Self in durgA saptazatI ........................................................... 75 Concept of Self and antaHkaraNa ............................................................ 77 Concept of Self and manas ....................................................................... 77 Concept of Self and buddhi ....................................................................... 86 Concept of Self and ahaGkAra ................................................................. 89 Regional Concept of Self .......................................................................... 89 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 91 5 The Paths of Bondage and Liberation ................................................. 93 Toward Real Self Through Work: A Process Model ................................. 93 Self and svadharma ................................................................................... 95 Performing or Not Performing One’s svadharma ..................................... 99 Intention: sakAma (or with Desire) or niSkAma (or Without Desire)? ..... 100 Path 1: Work as Bondage .......................................................................... 101 Path 2: Liberation Through Work ............................................................. 102 The Superiority of Path 2 .......................................................................... 104 niSkAma karma and vedAnta: tridoza and Their Antidotes ...................... 104 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 106 6 A Process Model of Desire ...................................................................... 111 Emotion in Anthropology and Psychology ............................................... 111 Anchoring Cognition, Emotion, and Behavior in Desire .......................... 113 A General Model of Psychological Processes and Desire ........................ 115 Support for the Model in Other Indian Texts ............................................ 118 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 123 7 A General Model of Peace and Happiness ........................................... 127 Peace and Happiness in the bhagavadgItA ............................................... 127 kAmasaMkalpavivarjana or the Path of Shedding Desires ...................... 128 jnAnyoga or the Path of Knowledge ......................................................... 132 karmayoga or the Path of Work ................................................................ 134 dhyAnyoga or the Path of Meditation ....................................................... 135 bhaktiyoga or the Path of Devotion .......................................................... 137 Path 2 and Synonyms of Peace and Happiness ......................................... 138 Support for the Model in Other Indian Texts ............................................ 140 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 141 xix Contents 8 karma: An Indian Theory of Work ........................................................ 143 The Philosophy of karma .......................................................................... 145 yajna , karma, and Work ............................................................................ 148 niSkAma karma or Work Without Desire .................................................. 153 Working for Social Good .......................................................................... 154 Working with Devotion ............................................................................. 156 Why to Work ............................................................................................. 157 How to Work ............................................................................................. 159 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 160 9 Epistemology and Ontology of Indian Psychology .............................. 163 Deriving Epistemology and Ontology of Indian Psychology ................... 165 Theory, Method, and Practice of Indian Psychology ................................ 173 Theories in Indian Psychology .................................................................. 175 Methodology for Indian Psychology ........................................................ 176 Practice of Indian Psychology .................................................................. 178 Characteristics of Indian Psychology ........................................................ 179 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 183 10 Toward a New Paradigm of Psychology ................................................ 185 Cultural Insight and Knowledge Creation ................................................ 187 Building Models by Content Analysis of Scriptures ................................ 189 Discovering or Mining Models from Scriptures ....................................... 189 Recognition of What Works in Indigenous Cultures ................................ 193 Questioning Western Concepts (Recognition of What Does Not Work) ........................................................................................ 196 Implications for Global Psychology ......................................................... 196 11 Summary and Implications .................................................................... 203 Methodological Contributions .................................................................. 203 Theoretical Contributions ......................................................................... 206 Contribution to Practice ............................................................................ 208 Implications for Future Research .............................................................. 209 References ........................................................................................................ 211 Author Index.................................................................................................... 227 Subject Index ................................................................................................... 231 wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww xxi Introduction Psychology as a discipline has been dominated by western psychology, and the psychology of 1% of the population of the world is imposed on the rest of the world (Triandis, 1994) as universal knowledge. This needs to change. The demand for change is inspired by what Triandis asked for in the late 1970s when he was editing the Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology: I wrote to some 40 colleagues, all over the world, and asked them to send me psychological findings from their culture that are not totally in agreement with findings published in the West. I got back very little. I was frustrated until Terry Prothro, then at the American University in Beirut, Lebanon, pointed out to me that our training and methods are also culture bound, and it is difficult to find new ideas without the theoretical and methodologi- cal tools that can extract them from a culture. Most of the people I had written to had gotten their doctorates in Western universities and would not have been especially good at analyz- ing their own cultures from a non-Western viewpoint. Examining one’s own culture takes a special effort. (Triandis, 1994, p. 3) Though cross-cultural psychology has questioned the validity of many western theories and even the methodology used, it limits itself by searching for universals or etics that have culture specific or emic representations. It is time to question the assumption that there are universals outside of cultural context. Indigenous psycho- logical research can help do that, and hence this book is about indigenous psychol- ogy, and specifically about a variety of indigenous psychology – Indian Psychology. I think what Triandis was searching for in the 1970s can only come from indige- nous psychology, and hence the need for research in that area. With globalization and the growth of multiculturalism in many parts of the world, spirituality has become an important issue for the global village and our workplace everywhere. There is much support that the nonwestern countries have much to offer in the domain of spirituality (Kroeber, 1944), yet this field of research is far from receiving the attention it deserves. Comparative religion or research on psychology of religion or religiosity hardly does justice to this field that is subjec- tive and applied, which runs against the grain of the positivist tradition that western psychological research has vigorously pursued. This book is about spirituality, and offers perspectives from indigenous perspectives, which should offer some fresh ideas to this area of research. xxii Introduction To meet both the above needs, this book uses the bhagavadgItA as its foundation, which is a sacred Hindu text. It is a popular source of knowledge and wisdom for the global community (Prabhupad, 1986). It has been studied by international scholars and has been translated in about 50 languages. This book provides examples of how psychological models can be distilled from such texts. However, the book is not about the bhagavadgItA, or a commentary on it. Figure 1 provides a schematic of the organization of the book. It is hoped that psychologists and other cultural and cross- cultural researchers would pay attention to the insights provided by these models, and examine its relevance in light of existing theories. This book attempts to advance research in indigenous psychology by developing models in the domain of spiritual- ity from Indian cultural insights presented in the bhagavadgItA. This book makes three contributions. First, it presents a research methodology for building models in indigenous psychology that starts with indigenous insights. This approach calls for the nurturing of indigenous research agenda, which is necessary since the western world dominates research and knowledge creation that often leads to starting with theoretical positions that are grounded in the western cultural mores. Thus, starting with such a theoretical position invariably leads to the pseudoetic approach in which theories are necessarily western emics. To avoid this Procrustean bed of western-theory-driven research it is necessary to start with insights offered by indigenous cultures, and this is where the research methodology presented in the book is both novel and useful as it could help us avoid the pseudoetic trap. Spirituality Indigenous Psychology bhagavadgItA CONTRIBUTIONS 1. METHODOLOGY INDIGENOUS MODELS THEORY OF SPIRITUALITY 2. 3. Figure 1 Foundations and outcomes of this book xxiii Introduction This approach proposes that we start with insights from folk wisdom and classical texts in indigenous nonwestern cultures. We should enrich these insights with anec- dotal evidence, qualitative analyses, and observational data from the target indige- nous culture. This approach necessarily has to be not only multiparadigmatic but also driven by multiple methods. Second, the proposed research methodology is applied to develop many indig- enous models from the bhagavadgItA. This validates both the practicality and usefulness of the methodology. The models span a broad range of topics, from concept of self to basic processes like cognition, emotion, and behavior. The mod- els show that psychology needs to be grounded in the cultural worldview of the society and people being investigated, and without making such effort we cannot begin to understand human psychology. The models also raise many questions for global psychology, questioning the validity of the dominant western psychology. The intention is not to call to question the existing western psychological knowl- edge, but to inspire a dialogue among various indigenous psychologies, including the western psychology. The implications of these models, and in general indige- nous psychological models, for cross-cultural psychology are also discussed. Finally, since the models presented in the book deal with spirituality from the Indian perspective, the book contributes to the emerging field of psychology of spirituality. With globalization and the growth of multiculturalism in many parts of the world, spirituality has become an important issue for the workplace, and the book contributes to this new area of research and practice by presenting models from an indigenous worldview that would help expand the perspectives of psy- chologists and managers. The book starts by making a case for indigenous psychology in Chapter 1. Our global village is fast changing with astronomical growth in virtual communication and physical movement of millions of people for leisure as well as work. The shrinking of the globe calls for a better understanding of each other, and we can do this by learning how each of us operates in our unique cultural space. This can be done meaningfully through the study of indigenous psychologies in large populous countries like China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, Nigeria, Mexico, and so forth in two ways. First, we can start with the cross-cultural theories and test them in the context of these countries. This approach is better than the pseudoetic approach in which people invariably start with western models developed in USA, Canada, and other European countries. Second, we can start with indigenous ideas to develop models, and then examine the cross-cultural theories and western ideas in light of these indigenous models. In Chapter 1, I present examples of both these approaches, and discuss the need to follow them in light of globalization. It is hoped that researchers will put a moratorium on pseudoetic research that leads to the mindless copying of western ideas, and start paying attention to indigenous ideas in psychology that can be found in many of these nonwestern countries. Psychological research in India is used to exemplify the general ideas presented in the chapter. In Chapter 2, I posit that spirituality has been valued in the Indian culture from time immemorial, and it is no surprise that many innovations in the field of spirituality originated in India. Since people strive to excel in areas that are compatible with xxiv Introduction their cultural values, India has seen the emergence of many geniuses in the field of spirituality even in the modern time. I combine two qualitative methods, historical analysis and case-analysis, to document how spirituality is valued in India, and much like a banyan tree, how it continues to grow even today. The chapter ends with a theoretical discussion of how culture shapes creativity, and its implications for global psychology. Worldview is shaped by culture, and worldview directs the choice of conceptual models, research questions, and what we do professionally as a social scientist. Researchers interested in culture, by virtue of being both scientists and cultural scholars, are well suited to examine the interaction between the culture of science and other indigenous cultures, and examine the human value system in the context of this dynamic interaction. In Chapter 3, the Indian cultural worldview is contrasted against the culture of science to demonstrate how conflict exists between many tra- ditional cultures and the culture of science. Further, research on Transcendental Meditation (TM) is presented as a vehicle to examine the interaction between Indian cultural worldview and what is called scientific thinking. This discussion leads to the development of a methodology – model building from cultural insights, which is one of the major contributions of this book. The chapter is concluded with a discus- sion of the implications of this approach to cultural research for global psychology. Concept of self has been studied from multiple perspectives in India. A review of the study of self in India reveals that indeed the core of Indian self is metaphysi- cal, and it has been the focus of study by philosophers as well as psychologists. There is general agreement about this self, the Atman, as being the real self. This metaphysical self is embodied in a biological self, and through the caste system right at birth, the biological self acquires a social self. In Chapter 4, I present material from ancient and medieval texts that describe the indigenous concept of self in India. I then discuss it in light of the contemporary psychological research, and employ this concept of self in the later chapters to build psychological models. This chapter also presents many indigenous psychological constructs like manas, buddhi , ahaGkAra, antaHkaraNa, and so forth. In Chapter 5, a model is drawn from the bhagavadgItA that shows how our physical self is related to work. The model shows how doing the work with the intention to achieve the fruits of our labor leads to an entrenched development of social self, but letting go of the passion for the reward for our actions leads us toward the real self. These two distinct paths are discussed in detail. The neglect of the second path in western psychology leads us to miss out on the immense possibility of leading a spiritual life. Considering that spirituality is a defining aspect of human existence and experience, this is not a small loss, and the chapter contributes by presenting a psychological model capturing the paths of bondage and liberation as processes. Psychologists have argued about the primacy of cognition and emotion for decades without any resolution. Deriving ideas from the bhagavadgItA, in Chapter 6, cognition, emotion, and behavior are examined by anchoring them in desire. The model presented here posits that cognition, emotion, and behavior derive significance when examined in the context of human desires, and starting with perception and volition, cognition emerges when a desire crystallizes. Desires xxv Introduction lead to behaviors, and the achievement or nonachievement of a desire causes positive or negative emotions. Through self-reflection, contemplation, and the prac- tice of karmayoga desires can be better managed, which can help facilitate healthy management of emotions. It is hoped that insights provided by this model would stimulate research for further examination of the role of desire in understanding and predicting cognition, emotion, and behavior. The increasing general stress level in both the industrialized and developing worlds has made personal harmony and peace a survival issue for the global com- munity. To serve this need, a model of how personal harmony can be achieved is derived from the bhagavadgItA in Chapter 7. The model presented in this chapter provides yet another example of how indigenous psychologies can contribute to universal psychology. It is hoped that insights provided by this model would stimu- late research for further examination of the relevance of indigenous psychology to universal psychology. Work is central to human identity, a topic that is discussed in a wide variety of literature covering psychology, sociology, political science, and literary studies. Work leads to social stratification, which has interested sociologists from the early days of the discipline. Psychologists, particularly industrial and organizational psychologists have also been interested in studying work values and cultural differences in them. Despite the emergence of a large volume of psychological literature related to work and work values, little is known about indigenous perspectives on work and work values. In Chapter 8, the concept of karma is examined to present an Indian Theory of Work, and implications of this theory for global psychology are discussed. In Chapter 9, the epistemological and ontological foundations of Indian Psychology (IP) are derived from the IzopaniSad and corroborated by verses from the bhagavadgItA. In doing so, epistemological questions like what is knowledge in IP or what knowledge (or theories) should IP develop and how (the methodology) are answered. Similarly, ontological questions like what is the being that is the focus of IP research or are biomechanical or spiritual–social–biological beings of interest to IP are addressed. The chapter is concluded with a discussion of the role of epistemology and ontology in constructing cultural meaning for theory, method, and practice of Indian Psychology. In Chapter 10, approaches to model building presented in the first nine chapters are formalized into five approaches. First, a content analysis of the text(s) by using key words can lead to the development of models about constructs such as peace, spiri- tuality, karma, dharma, identity, and so forth. Second, a process of model building from indigenous insights is discussed. Third, the process of discovering and polishing models that already exist in the scriptures to fit with the relevant literature is presented. Fourth, an approach of developing practical and useful theories and models by recog- nizing what works in the indigenous cultures is discussed. And finally, how one can develop indigenous models by questioning western concepts and models in the light of indigenous wisdom, knowledge, insights, and facts is presented. These approaches steer away from the pseudoetic approach, and allow theory building that is grounded in cultural contexts. The chapter also presents LCM and GCF models of etic, which moves the field of cultural research beyond the emic-etic framework. xxvi Introduction In Chapter 11, the major methodological, theoretical, and practical contributions of the book are summarized, and future research directions are noted. This book has proposed a methodology for developing models from indigenous ideas, and has demonstrated that this methodology is useful by presenting a number of models employing it. Methodologically, the book advances cultural research beyond the etic-emic framework by presenting the concept of LCM-etic and GCF-etic. Theoretical contributions of the book can be found in the models presented in each of the chapters in the book. These models also serve as self-help frameworks for practitioners, thus contributing to the world of practice. wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww 1 D.P.S. Bhawuk, Spirituality and Indian Psychology, International and Cultural Psychology, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-8110-3_1, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 Our global village is fast changing with astronomical growth in virtual communication and physical movement of millions of people for leisure as well as work. The shrinking of the globe calls for a better understanding of each other, and we can do this by learning how each of us operates in our unique cultural space. In this chapter, I present three reasons for, or imperatives of, doing indigenous research. I posit that there are two ways of doing meaningful cultural research in large populous countries such as China, India, Indonesia, Brazil, Nigeria, Mexico, and so forth. First, we can start with the cross-cultural theories and test them in the context of these countries. This approach is better than the pseudoetic approach in which people invariably start with Western models developed in USA, Canada, and other European countries. Second, we can start with indigenous ideas to develop models and then examine the cross-cultural theories and Western ideas in light of these indigenous models (Bhawuk, 2008a, b). I present examples of both these approaches. It is hoped that researchers will pause to reflect on the mindless copying of Western ideas and start paying attention to indigenous ideas in psychology, for at best, the borrowed Western models of psychology can confuse rather than help in understanding social and organizational behavior in these populous countries. I propose that researchers put a moratorium on pseudoetic research that leads to the mindless copying of Western ideas and start paying attention to indigenous ideas in psychology that can be found in many of these non-Western countries. Psychological research in India is used to exemplify the general ideas presented in the chapter. Download 3.52 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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