Introduction to management

19.4.3  SOCIAL LEARNING MODEL 

Employees learn from their surroundings, peers, parents, teachers and other 

people. They learn socially by observation, and the importance of the perception 

process has been recognised under the social learning model. Stimuli, attention, 

retention, reproduction and reinforcement have been accepted as basic 

components of social learning. Employees pay attention to several social stimuli, 

which occur in their surroundings. They do not pay attention to all stimuli, but 

pay attention to only those stimuli, which are attractive, easy to recognise, 

important and useful. The attended stimuli are recognised and translated by 

employees. The learning level depends upon how much the recognised stimuli are 

 

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retained in the mind of employees. The retention process is helpful for storing 

information. Stimuli, which are translated as useful and satisfactory, must be 

retained for reproduction and recall purposes. The recall provides reinforcement 

and behaviour. If rewards are provided, the behaviour will become a habit. The 

learning process is completed when employees show changes in behaviour, which 

becomes a habit, i. e. permanent change in behaviour. Social learning has become 

a more useful process of learning because it goes beyond the process of classical 

operant learning by recognising the fact that there are more points and subjects of 

learning than the antecedent stimuli of classical and contingent consequences of 

operant learning. Social learning refers to the learning process through vicarious 

process, modeling and self-control. 

Social learning includes the vicarious process, which is useful for learning, which 

involves observational learning. Millar and Bollard propounded the vicarious 

process wherein they believe that learning can take place through imitation 

process. Social learning includes the socialisation process. It refers to learning 

through social action, reaction and interaction. The language, customs, functions 

and performances are the outcome of social, cultural and political phenomena. 

Culture and religion are accepted for teaching the new generation about life style 

and behavioural patterns in society. People observe others and acquire a mental 

picture of the act and its consequences, which may be reward and punishment. If 

the consequences are positive and satisfactory as per social norms, people like to 

imitate and perform with repetition. If people find that the consequences are 

negative and full of problems, the imitated acts will be rejected. It is not a discrete 

 

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performance with discrete response consequences. Operant learning is discrete 

response stimuli whereas social learning is a continuous response stimuli 

connection. 

Modeling is effectively applied for shaping behaviour. It is used for the 

improvement of human behaviour. The behaviour leads to performance 

improvement. It is capable of meeting the technical skill requirements. A 

favourable environment increases the probability of attention and retention. Role-

playing and demonstration is modeled on the target behaviour. The behaviour is 

acquired as a result of the modeled process of existing behaviour. Continuous 

intermittent factors help develop behaviour. Modeling procedures have a 

favourable impact on behaviour and habits. 

19.5 REINFORCEMENT 

Reinforcement is the crucial factor in the learning process. This is also known as 

the method of shaping employees' behaviour. Perception becomes learning only 

through reinforcement. 

Perception = Stimuli       Attention       Recognition       Translation       Behaviour  

Learning = Stimuli      Attention    Recognition  Translation  Reinforcement 

 

Behaviour   

Habit 

Reinforcement is the repeated use of the translated stimuli to induce new 

behaviour. It increases the strength of response and induces repetitions of the 

response, which is the outcome of the translated and evaluated stimuli. When 

reward is attached to behaviour, it becomes a habit. Reinforcement increases the 

possibility of specific responses occurring in future as a result of evaluated stimuli 

 

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or uses. 

Learning  

= Input   

Process   

 

Output 

 

 

 

= Stimuli  

Reinforcement  

Behaviour 

Reinforcement is (he instrument or process of learning in all the models discussed 

already. No stimuli can take the shape of behaviour unless reinforcement or repetition 

takes place during the learning process. A learner of car driving learns until such time 

it becomes a part of the total habits of the learner. The behaviour i.e. learning car 

driving becomes a habit because the learner gets rewarded for his behaviour in the 

form of the satisfaction of car driving. Reinforcement is the repeated exposure of 

knowledge for translation into practice and habit. New behaviour or change in 

behaviour is the output of learning, which is the outcome of stimuli input through 

reinforcement. Classical, operant and social learning models lay emphasis on 

reinforcement. Reinforcement is another term for conditioning. The stimuli, response 

and social activities are conditioned to arrive at a new behaviour or change in 

behaviour. Behaviourists have proposed conditioning of employees for proper 

behaviour. Repetition, adherence, stimulus, generalisation or discrimination, 

converting theory into practice is various forms of reinforcement. A habit is formed 

through repeated rewards attached to behaviour. While conditioning explains how 

employees learn from cues or stimuli, operant (instrumental) conditioning refers to 

response or goal directed activities. Social conditioning is concerned with social 

recognition and acceptability. Employees learn in this case through modeling various 

observation or self-understanding. Reinforcement is a cognitive process. The stimuli 

are translated into habit through an effective, cognitive and behaviour process. 

Reinforcement, being cognitive in nature, is environmentally based. The law of effect 

is used in reinforcement for getting the reward. Goal-oriented reinforcement is long 

lasting and increases the strength of response. 

19.6 TYPES 

OF 

REINFORCEMENT 

Reinforcement may either be positive and negative, extrinsic and intrinsic, 

primary and secondary, and in the form of punishment and extinction. It is used to 

shape the behaviour of employees. Systematical reinforcement of successive steps 

will move employees closer to the desired response. They reinforce improvement 

in their behaviour. 

19.6.1  Positive and Negative reinforcement: Positive reinforcement consists of 

events that assure achievement of a specific response or the desired 

behaviour. Getting technical skills assures the desired result of reward, and 

 

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the changing of behaviour into a permanent habit of technical 

performance, when response is pleasant as a result of the repetitive efforts 

of employees, is called as positive reinforcement. It means that positive 

reinforcement assures desired consequences and pleasant achievements 

through strengthening of the present behaviour or present new behaviour. 

Positive reinforcement strengthens behaviour for pleasant performance 

and reward. It is the presentation of attractive results. Negative 

reinforcement does not give an unpleasant response, but avoids an 

unpleasant response. Negative reinforcement is the termination or 

withdrawal of an unpleasant and undesirable result. It helps employees 

escape from aversive or disagreeable conditions. Negative reinforcement 

is the termination of unattractive results. It is not punishment because 

punishment discourages behaviour, and negative reinforcement avoids 

unpleasant or disagreeable behaviour. Appreciation of an employee, who 

is successful in performing a task if constantly repeated, will be positive 

reinforcement. Repeatedly warning employees against the careless 

handling of electrical machines would be negative reinforcement as it 

attempts to avoid accidents. Negative reinforcement strengthens and 

increases a particular type of behaviour, as the employees learn how to 

avoid and prevent accidents while operating electric machines. The 

withdrawal or avoidance will result in a specific kind of behaviour. 

Negative reinforcement is not punishment because the latter decreases and 

discourages behaviour, while the former increases and strengthens 

 

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behaviour to avoid something undesirable. If an employee does not bother 

about undesirable results and handles the electric machine carelessly, he 

will face punishment by his supervisor or meet with an accident. In both 

the cases, behaviour decreases. If the employees do not follow negative 

reinforcement, they are punished. Employees learn to escape and avoid 

unpleasant jobs. They may avoid punishment by being alert enough to 

avoid undesirable events. For example, employees are not very active and 

good performers when the supervisor is not present in the factory. If a 

supervisor comes at a particular time, the employees become active before 

his entry into the factory. It is a negative reinforcement that employees 

avoid unpleasant rewards in the presence of the supervisor by nonworking 

and being non-active. If employees do not bother about the supervisor and 

do not exercise negative reinforcement, i.e. avoiding inaction, they will be 

punished by the supervisor for non-working and for their laxness. 

Negative reinforcement simply avoids unpleasant tasks, but it does not 

assure a pleasant performance for which positive reinforcement is 

essential in the organisation. 

19.6.2  Extrinsic and Intrinsic Enforcement: the employees to learn a particular 

type of behaviour externally use extrinsic reinforcement. The environment 

in the factory helps exercise extrinsic reinforcement. The employee is 

influenced by external cues and stimuli. The relationship between the 

supervisor and employees, monetary incentives and favourable work 

conditions are several examples of external reinforcement. The behaviour 

 

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of and instructions by peers and seers are used for moulding the behaviour 

of the employees. Extrinsic reinforcement is external and has other 

activities influencing the learning process as reinforcement. Intrinsic 

reinforcement is internal and uses self-reinforcement. When the employee 

develops his own understanding of the problem, it is self-reinforcement. 

Intrinsic reinforcement is self realisation and improvement of behaviour. 

Feelings and motives become intrinsic reinforcement. Intrinsic 

reinforcement is considered a more forceful process of learning. Extrinsic 

reinforcement will not be effective unless intrinsic reinforcement is 

applied for learning. It is self-appraisal and development. Extrinsic 

reinforcement is evaluated by employees and, if accepted as useful, will be 

converted into intrinsic reinforcement. Extrinsic and intrinsic 

reinforcement are used for learning purposes. Intrinsic reinforcement is 

personal and relates to satisfaction, recognition, challenges, growth and 

responsibilities. Extrinsic reinforcement is ultimately evaluated at the level 

of intrinsic reinforcement. The success of reinforcement depends on how 

much it influences the internal drive of the employees. In extrinsic 

reinforcement, for example, monetary incentives would be ineffective if it 

is not internally accepted as the drive for learning and improvement in 

behaviour. 

19.6.3  Primary and Secondary Reinforcement: Primary reinforcement directly 

influences primary motivational drives. It is related to the primary needs 

of people. The employees are reinforced to learn by adopting primary 

 

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functions or basic needs. Children learnt languages and mathematics 

through primary reinforcement. For example, they are told that A is. 

Apple, B is Banana because they are used to the words apple and banana. 

Therefore, the first letter of these fruits will help them understand the 

letters. The example of fruits is the primary reinforcement. Primary 

reinforcement is mainly observed in classical learning wherein the 

artificial reinforcement is accompanied with the natural or primary 

reinforcement to make a long-lasting impact of artificial reinforcement. 

The secondary reinforcement is closely related to the operant learning, 

wherein the rewards are taken as the drives and motives for learning. 

Secondary reinforcements are artificial and new in their characters. They 

are first introduced to the learner for adoption in their learning process. 

Technical education first introduces the machine and its components 

before detailing its operation. Secondary reinforcements have become 

significant for understanding complex human behaviour. This 

reinforcement is used for motivation and modifying behaviour. 

19.6.4  Punishment and Extinction: Punishment is also a method of learning, 

although it is very crude and undesirable. It is generally used to make the 

employees learn a particular type of behaviour. However, it is the least 

accepted aspect of learning. Supervisors use punishment to modify the 

behaviour of employees. Punishment is not a well-thought reinforcement. 

It is the reverse of reinforcement for altering behaviour. Punishment is 

used in an illiterate society to learn behaviour. Indian workplaces 

 

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generally use punishment for mending the behaviour of employees, 

although it is the reverse of reinforcement and learning. There is no 

shortage of examples where employees learn to attend work in time and 

perform correctly because of fear of punishment. Fear psychosis is helpful 

to the learning process. It is a complex and cumbersome method of 

learning, and cannot be used as an effective reinforcement. On the 

contrary, punishment decreases reinforcement and consequently the 

learning process and results. It weakens behaviour and ultimately 

decreases productivity. Punishment is the appreciation of an undesirable 

process or the facing of noxious consequences. It is designed to discourage 

a particular type of behaviour. It creates unpleasant conditions to eliminate 

undesirable behaviour. Negative reinforcement presents pleasant 

conditions to avoid unpleasant consequences. Punishment is an unpleasant 

condition to prevent undesirable behaviour. Punishment focuses on 

unpleasant reinforcement and undesirable behaviour. Punishment does not 

contribute to learning the desired response. On the other hand, it creates an 

undesirable atmosphere and discourages learning for favourable results. 

Only positive and negative reinforcements help in learning and getting a 

favourable outcome. Extinction is the withdrawal of desirable 

consequences and is contingent upon employee’s behaviour. The 

withdrawal of desirable consequences occurs after behaviour has taken 

place. In this process neither reward nor punishment follows undesirable 

behaviour. Ignoring undesirable behaviour is extinction. For example, if 

 

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an employee misbehaves with his colleagues, the supervisor ignores his 

behaviour. Ignoring this behaviour will extinguish undesirable behaviour. 

When learned response is not reinforced, it is extinction. The behaviour 

fades with the neglect of response. Eliminating any reinforcement for 

maintaining behaviour is called extinction. Punishment and extinction are 

not true learning processes as there is no effective reinforcement for the 

learning process. Learning is expected through undesirable stimuli and 

reinforcement, or avoiding both stimuli and reinforcement to check 

undesirable behaviour. Positive and negative reinforcement help learning 

because they provide favourable behaviour and avoid non-favourable 

behaviour. 

19.7  TECHNIQUES OF REINFORCEMENT 

Reinforcement plays a crucial role in human resources management such as 

learning, training, improvement, development and modification. It increases the 

strength of desired behaviour. Employees are psychologically treatment through 

reinforcement for delivering good results. If rewards are attached to behaviour, 

employees develop reinforcement into habits. The pattern and timing of 

reinforcement are important factors to determine the results of reinforcement. 

Some type of reinforcement is essential to produce change in behaviour and result 

in the effective performance of the organisation. However, the speed, place and 

timing of reinforcement have much bearing on behaviour change. 

19.7.1  Schedules of Reinforcement 

The schedule of reinforcement should be properly decided for getting the full 

 

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result of learning. The schedule of reinforcement may be continuous or 

intermittent. Intermittent is further classified on interval and ratio basis into fixed 

and variable. 

(i) 

Continuous Schedule: A continuous schedule incorporates each and 

every item of learning in a systematic order. It reinforces the accepted 

stimuli to get the desired behaviour. Learners get stimuli and cues 

repeatedly till they learn the desired behaviour. Continuous reinforcement 

assures a specific habit. The machine operators are continuously told to 

operate the machine. They are first given a theoretical perception before 

putting this into practical usage. They operate the machine in the presence 

of the supervisor who constantly describes the use of each and every part 

of the machine till they learn how to operate the machine effectively. 

(ii) 

Intermittent Schedule: An intermittent schedule does not include 

demonstration of each and every item of learning as in the case of the 

continuous schedule. Reinforcement is given after a gap to make the 

learner repeat himself during the learning process. Intermittent 

reinforcement provides more opportunities to learn because the learner 

applies his mind during the interval of not getting instruction. It promotes 

more resistance to extinction. Desired behaviour is observed easily 

through reinforcement repeated after a gap and not every time. It is 

clarified with a simple example of a machine operator in the factory. 

When the foreman continuously attends the learning of operation process 

to make the learners conversant with each and every point of his 

 

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demonstration, the learners are dependent on the trainer and may not apply 

their minds during performance. However, in the case of intermittent 

reinforcement, the foreman comes after a certain time and explains 

whatever is not clear to the employees. He is not present continuously. In 

this case, the learner applies his mind and tries to think clearly when the 

trainer is absent, because the trainer will not be present always to solve all 

his problems. The trainer comes after a gap of time. The time interval 

depends on the number of employees engaged in learning and the nature 

of learning. Within the time interval, employees repeat the reinforcement 

given by the trainer when he has left after instruction. The gap between the 

first instruction and the second instruction makes the employees learn the 

behaviour demonstrated in the first instruction. The intermittent schedule 

helps in the modification of behaviour and the extinction of unfavourable 

behaviour. The discontinued and discrete schedule helps understand the 

work profoundly. Reinforcement after a gap recalls previous good 

behaviour and avoids non-desirable behaviour. Behaviour becomes 

resistant to extinction. Intermittent reinforcement may be based on an 

internal ratio.  

Interval Schedule: Reinforcement is done with a uniform time interval. 

The critical variable is time, which may be fixed or variable. 

Fixed interval schedule: A fixed interval schedule has a constant 

variable. The learner attends to the learning process at fixed intervals of a 

week, fortnight, month or year. Reinforcement is given after a specified 

 

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period of time. The time interval is fixed for a particular learning process. 

Since there are different learning processes, the fixed interval varies from 

one job to another. At the beginning of learning, a short interval is 

desirable which may extend further at a later stage of learning. Monetary 

reinforcement is generally at fixed intervals. The time interval is fixed 

after research to make the interval an effective and useful learning process. 

Too long or too short an interval may hamper the learning process and 

consequently the results or response of reinforcement. 

Variable interval: The time schedule is not fixed. The learner is unaware 

as to when he will get the reinforcement. The supervisor has told the 

employees to work seriously. If anyone is found inactive at any time, he 

may be punished. The supervisor reinforces his decision at random or at 

any time not known to the employees. Reinforcement is given in an 

irregular or unsystematic manner. Unlike fixed interval intermittent 

reinforcement, the time of reinforcement is not known or certain in case of 

the variable interval. It makes employees aware of their functions and 

disciplines all the time, to avoid any punishment during a random visit by 

the supervisor. In the case of the fixed interval, the employees are aware 

of the time of the supervisor's visit, and so try to be alert only at that time. 

At any other time, they are inactive and careless. A variable interval 

having uncertainty of reinforcement becomes more effective and useful.