Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
particular, a transitive verb together with its np object will constitute a vp and
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
particular, a transitive verb together with its np object will constitute a vp and may be passivized; in this case, the np will remain an object after passivization. Observe (48) from North Russian. (48) U mena bylo telenka zarezano at me was(3sg.neut) calf(fem.acc) slaughtered(sg.neut) ‘By me there was slaughtered a calf’ Similarly, Latin employs impersonal passives with transitive verbs whose object occurs in the dative case, as illustrated in (49). (49) a. Boni cives legibus parent good citizens law(dat.pl) obey ‘Good citizens obey laws’ b. Legibus (a bonis civibus) paretur law(dat.pl) (by good citizens) is.obeyed(3sg) ‘(By good citizens) there is obeying laws’ Fourth, it appears in a few languages that ‘reflexive’ forms come to function with an impersonal passive meaning, as illustrated in (50) from Polish; note the impossibility of including an agent phrase. 348 Edward L. Keenan and Matthew S. Dryer (50) a. Idzie sie szybko (*przez uczniow) is.walked refl quickly by schoolboys ‘One walks quickly’; ‘There is quick walking’ b. Dokonuje sie prace (*przez uczonych) is.completed refl works by scientists ‘The works are being completed’ And fifth, a language may have impersonal constructions which are syntacti- cally and morphologically independent of the existence of basic passives. This is illustrated in (51) for Irish. In (51a) is an example of a simple active clause in Irish; (51b) is the basic passive of (51a); (51c) is an impersonal passive cor- responding to (51a). Note that the impersonal passive construction in (51c) is completely different from the basic passive in (51b): in (51b), the basic pas- sive is formed with an auxiliary plus participle, while in (51c), the impersonal passive involves a distinct form of the verb. (51) a. Bhuail si e (Active) hit she him ‘She hit him’ b. Bhi se buailte aici (Basic passive) aux he hit(ptcpl) at.her ‘He was hit by her’ c. Buaileadh (lei) e (Impersonal passive) hit(imprs) (with her) him ‘There was hitting of him (by her)’ In fact, mind-bogglingly, Noonan and Bavin-Woock (1978) shows that a basic passive in Irish may be further subject to the impersonal construction in that language: (52) is an impersonal passive formed on the basic passive in (51b). (52) Bhiothas buailte (aici) aux(imprs) hit(part) (at.her) ‘There was being hit (by her).’ 3.3 Passives on ditransitive verb phrases Among the common three-place or ditransitive verb phrases in a language will be translations of verbs like give, show, teach, etc. Languages vary as to which of the two objects in such clauses can appear as the derived subject in a passive. In French, for example, only the patient and not the recipient can serve as the subject of a passive. Thus, given an active ditransitive clause like (53a), we find a passive with the patient as subject, as in (53b), but not one with the recipient as subject, as illustrated by the ungrammaticality of (53c). Passive in the world’s languages 349 (53) a. Jean a donn´e le livre `a Pierre Jean has given the book to Pierre ‘Jean gave the book to Pierre’ b. Le livre a ´et´e donn´e `a Pierre the book has been given to Pierre ‘The book was given to Pierre’ c. *Pierre a ´et´e donn´e le livre Pierre has been given the book ‘Pierre was given the book’ In Yindjibarndi, in contrast, only the recipient and not the patient of a ditransitive verb can become the subject of a passive clause. Thus, given an active clause like (54a), we can form a passive in which the recipient is subject, as in (54b), but (54c), in which the patient is subject, is ungrammatical. (54) a. Ngaara yungku-nha ngayu murla-yi man give-past 1sg.obj meat-obj ‘A man gave me the meat’ b. Ngayi yungku-nguli-nha murla-yi ngaarta-lu I give-pass-past meat-obj man-instr ‘I was given the meat by a man’ c. *Murla yungku-nguli-nha ngayu ngaarta-lu meat give-pass-past 1sg.obj man-instr ‘The meat was given to me by a man’ In Kinyarwanda, on the other hand, both the recipient and the patient can serve as subject in a passive clause: (55) a. Umugabo y-a-haa-ye umug´ore igitabo man he-past-give-asp woman book ‘The man gave the woman the book’ b. Umug´ore y-a-haa-w-e igitabo n-ˆumugabo woman she-past-give-pass-asp book by-man ‘The woman was given the book by the man’ c. Igitabo cy-a-haa-w-e umug´ore n’ˆumugabo book it-past-give-pass-asp woman by-man ‘The book was given to the woman by the man’ English, at first glance, is similar, but with complications. We find both recipient passives and patient passives: (56) a. John was given the book by Mary b. The book was given to John by Mary |
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