Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
Suggestions for further reading
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
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Suggestions for further reading In addition to chapters 7 (by Foley) 3 (by Andrews), and 4 (by Dryer) in this vol- ume, other relevant readings include Siewierska (1984), which discusses a wide array of issues surrounding passive constructions, and Klaiman (1991), which discusses passive constructions in relation to a number of related constructions, such as middles. Three anthologies which deal specifically with passives and related constructions are Shibatani (1988), Giv´on (1994), and Fox and Hopper (1994). There is much discussion of passives in the literature on Relational Grammar, including Perlmutter and Postal (1983), Postal (1986), and Blake (1990). A number of chapters in The World Atlas of Language Structures (Haspel- math et al. (2005)) are relevant to topics discussed in this chapter, including Siewierska (2005b) and Polinsky (2005). 7 A typology of information packaging in the clause William A. Foley 0 Introduction All human languages possess syntactically variant ways to express what speak- ers intuitively feel is essentially the same conceptual event (see Grace (1987)). The syntactic variants available include word order differences, as in Yimas, a Papuan language of New Guinea (see chapter 3 by Andrews for an explanation of the symbols a, s, and p) – (1) kalakn klaki ya-n-tay boy.sg parrot.pl 3pl.p-3sg.a-see ‘The boy saw the parrots’ – in which all possible permutations of this sentence are grammatical and have the same basic meaning as (1): (2) klaki ya-n-tay kalakn klaki kalakn ya-n-tay kalakn ya-n-tay klaki ya-n-tay klaki kalakn ya-n-tay kalakn klaki Other possibilities are active–passive alternations exemplified by the English pair: (3) (a) The boy hit the ball (b) The ball was hit by the boy Again, the two sentences contain the same basic information, ‘boy hits ball’, and one could say that the difference in syntactic structure seemingly has no effect. This is in marked contrast to some other shifts in word order in English: note, for example, that the sentences in (4) have exactly opposite meanings: (4) (a) Bill hit Fred (b) Fred hit Bill 362 A typology of information packaging 363 Finally, there may be changes in the verb form of the sentence with consequent effects in the marking or order of associated nps, but again with no differ- ence in the basic meaning, as in these examples from the Mayan language Tzutujil: (5) (a) jar aachi x- -uu-choy chee ʔ tza ʔ n machat the man past -3sg.p-3sg.a-cut wood with machete (b) jar aachi machat x- -choy-b’e-ej ja chee ʔ the man machete past-3sg.s-cut-instr-suff the wood ‘The man cut the wood with the machete’ Dayley (1985) Both the (a) and (b) sentences have the same basic meaning ‘man uses machete to cut wood’, but the syntactic form in which it is expressed varies: in the (a) sentence the verb is inflected transitively with prefixes for both the a argument (uu-) and the p argument ( ), and the instrument machat ‘machete’ appears in a prepositional phrase with tza ʔ n ‘with’ following the verb. In (b) the instrument appears as a bare np preceding the verb, and the verb is inflected intransitively with only a null prefix for its sole s argument ( ), and carries the derivational suffix -b’e (‘instr’). In each of these examples, we see the same basic conceptual event ‘packaged’ in different ways through differences in word order, verbal morphology, case marking or grammatical function assignment. For example, the English active– passive alternation of (3) express the same basic information, the hitting of the ball by the boy, but the two nps the boy and the ball have different kinds of ‘salience’. In the first sentence the subject np refers to the doer of the action and direct object np refers to the entity affected by the action. In the second it is the np denoting the affected participant which is the grammatical subject, while the np denoting the doer occurs in a postverbal prepositional phrase. Note we normally understand the sentences in (3) as being about their subjects, so that we afford (3a, b) slightly different interpretations: (a) is saying something about the boy, while (b) comments about the ball. The same basic conceptual event is described in each sentence, but is expressed from a different perspective, ‘packaged’ in different ways. Why do languages possess variable ways of packaging the same event? Basically because, when people speak, they do so within a social context that includes previous speech, of themselves, of other interlocutors, even of long dead ancestors, in clich´es, proverbs or even fables (Bakhtin (1981)). This context of speaking, together with wider sociocultural knowledge (Gumperz (1982)), is the background against which people construct and interpret the meaning and relevance of new utterances so that the utterances cohere to make up an intelligible discourse. A discourse is not merely a set of sentences 364 William A. Foley randomly strung together, but is rather a structured series, the development of which constitutes a coherent whole and is recognized as such by speakers of a language. Speakers therefore employ the various packaging options for clauses in the languages in order to ensure the coherence of the discourse. Each conceptual event described in the discourse will be presented in such a way as to foster the coherence of the discourse: thus, in a story about a boy and his afternoon play, we are much more likely to find a sentence like (3a) than (3b). Download 1.59 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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